Spain’s 19th Century Political Transformations
Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Under Charles IV, the monarchy faced a crisis. His initial “revolution” against the French led to a declaration of war on France (1793), which ended in failure (1795). In 1799, Godoy allied with Napoleon, authorizing French troops to cross Spain (Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807). This alliance and Godoy’s policies provoked widespread discontent, culminating in the Aranjuez Mutiny of 1808.
War of Independence (1808-1814)
On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose against the French occupation. Spanish guerrillas formed to harass the French forces. Key events included:
- In 1812, Russia forced Napoleon to withdraw a significant portion of his troops from Spain.
- In 1813, Wellington and Spanish forces helped to push the French into full retreat.
- The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Valençay.
The Cortes of Cádiz
In 1810, the Central Junta convened a meeting in Cádiz. Their first significant decision was that all representatives, regardless of their social origin, would meet as a single assembly, and each vote would carry the same weight. The Constitution of 1812 was drafted, reflecting the principles of liberalism. The Cortes also passed laws designed to abolish the Old Regime.
Absolutist Restoration
Upon his return to Spain in 1814, Ferdinand VII immediately delivered a blow to liberal reforms by closing the Cortes and superseding the Constitution of 1812. He re-established an absolutist regime, effectively restoring the Old Regime.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, Colonel Riego’s pronouncement in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville) was successful, inaugurating the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). This period forced King Ferdinand VII to abide by the Constitution of 1812, and the National Militia was created. However, Ferdinand VII sought international help, and the Holy Alliance requested France’s intervention. In 1823, France sent the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis to restore absolutism.
Breakdown of Absolutism (1823-1833)
During this period, Ferdinand VII proved unable to solve the country’s pressing problems, which included severe economic difficulties and a looming dynastic conflict.
Causes of American Independence
The independence movements in the Americas were fueled by several factors:
- The diffusion of Enlightened ideas and principles of freedom and equality.
- The Proclamation of Independence of the USA in 1776, serving as an example.
- The growing discontent of the Creoles (descendants of Europeans born in the Americas).
End of the Spanish American Empire
Important centers of secession emerged across the Americas:
- Venezuela: Led by Simón Bolívar.
- Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata: Led by José de San Martín.
Key victories included:
- San Martín defeated Spanish forces in Chile, liberating Chacabuco in 1817.
- In 1821, Simón Bolívar defeated Spanish forces, leading to the liberation of Gran Colombia.
- Iturbide liberated Mexico in 1821.
- José Sucre liberated Peru and Bolivia at Ayacucho in 1824.
Challenges for the New Republics
The newly independent American republics faced significant challenges:
- The rise of local warlords (caudillos) prevented the formation of a united America, leading to multiple fragmented republics.
- Persistent large social and economic inequalities.
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII, his wife María Cristina became regent. This triggered the First Carlist War, a conflict between two opposing factions:
- Carlism: Advocated for the Old Regime, supporting Ferdinand VII’s brother, Don Carlos. Its defenders sought to maintain absolute monarchy and traditional values.
- Isabeline: Supported the regency of María Cristina and the claim of Isabel II. This faction favored a change of regime towards a constitutional monarchy, freedom of property, and social mobility.
The war (1833-1840) primarily focused on Carlist insurrections in the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. The conflict ended with the Convention of Vergara in 1839, signed by Espartero and Maroto.
Political Reforms and Constitutions
Moderates
Favored more limited reforms and a gradual dismantling of the Old Regime.
Progressives
Headed by figures like Mendizábal, they implemented a more liberal regime. Key measures included the disentailment of private property and its alienation. A new Constitution was established in 1837.
The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
In 1840, the existing regent was forced to resign. General Espartero became the new regent. However, Espartero himself resigned in 1843, leading to Isabel II being declared of legal majority age.
The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)
During Isabel II’s reign, the dominant liberal party adopted a moderate, conservative, and centrist character. Under the impetus of Narváez, the Constitution of 1845 was promulgated, featuring:
- Very limited suffrage.
- Shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the King.
Finances and taxes were centralized under state control. A new Criminal Code was also enacted in 1851.
Crisis of the Isabeline System (1854-1868)
In 1854, General O’Donnell triumphed, and liberals attempted to restore the Constitution of 1837. The final stage of Queen Isabel II’s reign (1856-1868) was marked by an alternation of power between Moderates and Progressives. The authoritarian government’s actions exerted strong repression, leading to the establishment of new political groups, such as the Democrats and Republicans.
The Revolution of 1868
Marginalized Unionist, Progressive, and Democratic groups joined forces through the Pact of Ostende. Prim and Serrano then staged a successful coup d’état. They implemented significant reforms, including:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Education reform.
The Constitution of 1869 was subsequently approved.
The Democratic Monarchy (1870-1873)
A new king was chosen: Amadeo of Savoy, who arrived in Spain in 1870. The new monarch faced immense challenges, including:
- An ongoing insurrection in Cuba (which began in 1868).
- The outbreak of the Third Carlist War (1872).
Overwhelmed by these difficulties, Amadeo renounced the throne in 1873.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic was initially received with enthusiasm, proposing social and reform programs that aimed to organize the state in a federal form. However, its short existence was tumultuous. On January 3, 1874, General Pavía staged a coup, dissolving the Cortes and handing over state power to General Serrano.