Spain’s 19th Century Political Landscape: Republic, Restoration, and Reforms
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
After the abdication of Amadeo I, the Parliament declared the First Spanish Republic. It lasted only nine months and saw four different presidents: Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi i Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, and Emilio Castelar. Their time in office was marked by serious challenges.
Challenges of the First Republic
- The Cantonal Movement: This movement proposed the territorial organization of Spain as a federal republic of 17 “states.” In July 1873, independent republics (or cantons) were formed in Alicante, Seville, Málaga, Cartagena, and other regions. The movement was harshly suppressed.
- The Ten Years’ War in Cuba: This conflict began in 1868 due to discontent among the Creole population. The uprising was supported by the USA and ended in 1878 with the Pact of Zanjón.
- The Third Carlist War: Sparked in 1872 by the Carlist candidate Carlos VII, this war concluded in 1876.
In this situation of widespread chaos, General Pavía led a coup d’état and dissolved the Parliament in 1874. A new pronunciamiento, led by General Martínez Campos, subsequently restored the Bourbon dynasty.
The Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874-1931)
Return of the Bourbons: Alfonso XII
In 1874, General Martínez Campos proclaimed Isabel II’s son, Alfonso XII, as king. This marked the beginning of a new political era known as the Restoration (La Restauración), a period of significant political stability in Spain. The new king supported the constitutional monarchy.
To organize the new political system, the king appointed Antonio Cánovas del Castillo as president of the government. Cánovas successfully ended both the war in Cuba and the Carlist War. He also established a constitutional regime.
Pillars of the Restoration: The 1876 Constitution
The Restoration was founded on two important pillars: a new constitution and the alternating power between the two major political parties. The Constitution of 1876 aimed to maintain peace and stability.
Key Features of the 1876 Constitution:
- It included a broad list of rights and freedoms to satisfy progressives and democrats.
- It proclaimed Spain a Catholic state and established shared sovereignty between the Cortes (Parliament) and the king to satisfy moderates.
The right to vote was left pending, as the specific voting system was not defined within the constitution itself.
The Turno Pacífico: Party System and Electoral Fraud
Two parties alternated peacefully in government, a system known as turnismo or turno pacífico. Both parties accepted the constitutional monarchy. These were the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party:
- The Conservative Party: Led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, this party supported Catholic values and social order.
- The Liberal Party: Led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, this party advocated for social reform. In 1890, during one of their periods in government, they approved universal male suffrage.
The political landscape also included other groups excluded from gaining power, such as the Republicans, the Carlists, and the socialist and anarchist workers’ movements. Workers’ parties only gained significant electoral influence towards the end of the Restoration period.
Caciquismo and Electoral Manipulation
The alternation in government between the Conservative and Liberal parties was achieved through a system of electoral corruption. The king first decided which party was going to rule and then called an election. The results were arranged so that the king’s choice always won.
- In rural areas, powerful individuals called caciques used intimidation and violence to force the local population to vote in a specific way. This practice was known as caciquismo.
- In cities, where the caciques had less power, the electoral results were manipulated in a system known as pucherazo.
This system aimed to ensure alternating victories for the Conservatives and Liberals. While this electoral fraud brought stability to Spanish political life, it also prevented increasingly significant groups from participating. These groups included the anarchists, the socialists (led by Pablo Iglesias), and the Catalan, Basque, and Galician nationalists.
Economic Reforms: Spanish Disentailments
Mendizábal’s Disentailment (1836)
Juan Álvarez Mendizábal’s disentailment acquired uncultivated lands from the Church. The funds generated were used to finance the Carlist War.
Madoz’s Disentailment (1855)
Pascual Madoz’s disentailment acquired common lands from towns and villages, with the funds generated being used for the railway system.