Spain’s 19th Century: From Revolution to Restoration
The Progressive Biennium and the Liberal Union
The Progressive Biennium, led by Espartero, was supported by a centrist party sponsored by O’Donnell called the Liberal Union, which integrated moderate progressives and conservatives. The new government launched a confiscation of church lands and adopted the Law of Railways. It was a period of crises and social agitation with many protests. This was the reason the queen gave for removing the progressives from government. Between 1856 and 1866, the government alternated between the Liberal Union and the Moderates led by Narváez. In 1866, the monarchy of Isabella II entered a serious crisis.
Final Crisis of Isabella II’s Reign
The crisis was caused by several factors:
- Rioting in the countryside and cities caused by economic problems and famine.
- Liberals, republicans, and democrats were excluded from power and were unhappy with the queen’s authoritarian government.
- The queen’s personal life was a source of scandal, and she was seen as carefree about governing.
In 1866, liberals, democrats, and republicans signed the Pact of Ostend to overthrow the queen.
The 1868 Revolution and Amadeo I’s Monarchy
In 1868, a movement to depose Isabella II arose, led by Generals Serrano and Prim. Revolutionary juntas were created to control the provinces and cities. The queen left Spain. A provisional government was formed, headed by Serrano, which convened Constituent Cortes that approved the Constitution of 1869. This constitution contained a declaration of rights and established universal male suffrage. Serrano was appointed regent until a new king could be chosen. President Prim searched for a king for Spain and selected Amadeo of Savoy (who was not popular with the people), but Prim was assassinated just as Amadeo was arriving. During his short reign, Amadeo faced major problems, including an insurrection in Cuba and a new Carlist War. Consequently, the king abdicated.
The First Spanish Republic (11 Months)
The First Republic was born with many problems. The republicans themselves could not agree on whether the state should be unitary or federal. There was a cantonalist movement, which saw independent republics declared in places like Catalonia, Málaga, and Cartagena, that had to be repressed. The republic also faced the Third Carlist War and the ongoing war in Cuba. In January 1874, General Pavía staged a coup, dissolving the Cortes. General Serrano governed for one year. A new coup in December 1874 restored the Bourbon dynasty.
The Bourbon Restoration
In 1874, Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. He was a supporter of a constitutional monarchy and appointed Cánovas del Castillo as president of the government. This new regime ended the war in Cuba and the Carlist War and created a new political system based on two pillars: a new constitution and the alternation of power.
The Constitution of 1876
It had a conciliatory character, as it embodied some progressive principles. It proclaimed the confessional nature of the State (Catholicism) and established shared sovereignty between the Cortes (parliament) and the king.
Alternation in Power (Turnismo)
This system involved two main parties peacefully alternating in government:
- Conservatives: Led by Cánovas, they were defenders of the church and social order.
- Liberals: Led by Sagasta, they supported social reforms and eventually adopted universal male suffrage.
This monopoly on government was made possible by electoral corruption. The king would decide which party was to win, and then elections would be called and rigged to produce the desired result:
- In the countryside: The Cacique (local political boss) forced people to vote for the convenient party. This practice was known as Caciquismo.
- In the cities: Votes were manipulated if the election results were not as expected. This practice was known as pucherazo (rigging).
Opposition to the System
- Anarchists: Strong in Catalonia and Andalusia, they were pursued for the attacks they committed. They created the National Confederation of Labour (CNT).
- Socialists: Led by Pablo Iglesias, who founded the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) in 1879. Later, the General Union of Workers (UGT) was formed.
- Nationalist Parties: During this era, nationalist parties emerged in opposition to the centralized state, particularly in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia.
A Class-Based Society
Ruling Class
- Aristocracy: Composed of nobles who had lost their manorial rights but retained social prestige and wealth.
- Bourgeoisie: Made up of the owners of factories and financial enterprises.
Middle Class
Comprised of civil servants, small businessmen, and merchants.
Popular Classes
This group had little money and was often illiterate. It included:
- Farmers and Labourers: They constituted the bulk of the population and lived in very poor conditions.
- Industrial Workers: Lived in overcrowded, poor neighbourhoods with inadequate infrastructure. They organized into unions like the CNT and UGT.
- Other Groups: Included servants, beggars, and other marginalized people.