Spain’s 19th Century: Crisis, Liberalism, and Conflict
The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Carlos IV and the Napoleonic Era
The crisis of the Bourbon monarchy began with the reaction of the monarchy of Carlos IV against Revolutionary France. War was declared in 1793, lasting until 1795. This conflict proved to be a failure, leading Manuel Godoy to make a sharp turn in foreign policy. Soon, Napoleon gained influence, authorizing the French army to pass through Spain to attack Portugal. This provoked the outbreak of the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808.
Faced with this situation, Napoleon decided to convene Carlos IV and his son Ferdinand VII in Bayonne. There, they were compelled to accept the appointment of Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain.
The Cortes of Cádiz
In 1810, the Central Board convened the Cortes (parliament) in the city of Cádiz. This was significant as much of the Spanish territory was occupied by French forces. The Cortes brought together representatives from all Spanish territories, and the majority defended the ideas of liberalism, successfully imposing their views over the more absolutist sector.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, a pronouncement by Colonel Rafael del Riego in Cabezas de San Juan initiated the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). King Ferdinand VII was forced to abide by the Constitution of 1812, declared an amnesty, and called for elections for new Cortes. Many of the reforms from Cádiz were restored, and a national militia was created.
However, Ferdinand VII sought help from European powers and the Holy Alliance. France was charged with military intervention in Spain, and in 1823, the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis entered Spain. They defeated the Liberals and restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.
Challenges of the Liberal Triennium:
- Economic crisis
- Division among liberals (moderates and progressives)
- Progressive independence of Spanish America
The Collapse of Absolutism and Repression
The restoration of absolutism was followed by severe repression against the Liberals and the destruction of all previous legislative work. Despite Ferdinand VII’s final years, the country faced serious problems that remained unsolved. A very difficult economic situation necessitated fiscal reform, and secondly, the dynastic conflict emerged.
Causes of Spanish American Independence
In the early 19th century, unrest that had been building for decades in the Spanish colonies erupted in the form of wars of independence.
Key Factors:
- Diffusion of Enlightened ideas and the principles of freedom and equality.
- The example of the independence of the United States.
- Discontent of the native Creole bourgeoisie.
The Carlist Wars and Liberal Reforms
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, a dynastic conflict erupted. His daughter, Isabel II, was proclaimed queen, but her claim was challenged by her uncle, Don Carlos, who advocated for the Salic Law (which excluded women from the throne). This initiated the First Carlist War.
The Carlists were defenders of the Old Regime, supporting absolutism and traditional values. Opposing them were the Isabelines, who rallied around Isabel II and her mother, María Cristina. The Isabeline side was supported by the bourgeoisie, the urban working class, and a significant part of the peasantry.
The war lasted approximately seven years, with major outbreaks in the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Valencia. Although the Carlists failed to hold any major city, the liberal army eventually imposed its dominance. The Convention of Vergara in 1839 effectively ended the war, though Carlism persisted as an ideological movement throughout much of the 19th century, opposing liberal systems.
Subsequent Carlist Conflicts:
- Second Carlist War (1846-1849): During the reign of Isabel II.
- Third Carlist War (1872-1876): During the Six Revolutionary Years and the reign of Alfonso XII.
Liberal Reforms and Regencies
During this period, significant progressive reforms were enacted. A set of laws allowed for the dissolution of manorialism, the disentailment of church and municipal properties, and the confiscation of assets from the clergy and municipalities. This process culminated in the Constitution of 1837.
The regency of María Cristina (1833-1840) saw initial attempts to navigate the liberal revolution. However, political tensions led to her resignation in 1840. General Espartero, a progressive, was then appointed regent (1840-1843). Espartero himself resigned in 1843, after which the Cortes declared Isabel II of age and proclaimed her queen, despite her being only thirteen years old.