Spain’s 19th Century Conflicts: Carlist War and Liberal Triennium
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Absolutist-friendly groups refused to recognize Isabel II as the legitimate successor to the throne and revolted against the government of Maria Cristina de Borbón. The rebels proclaimed Infante Don Carlos as king, thereby starting a civil war.
Opposing Factions and Ideologies
The traditionalist and anti-liberal Carlists encompassed part of the clergy, the gentry, and a peasant social base, representing a conservative and archaic society. The Regent Maria Cristina, initially supported by a portion of the absolutists, soon made a pact with moderate liberalism. This compromise allowed for the establishment of a liberal regime.
The Regent was forced to accede to the demands for more progressive reforms, which helped rally the grassroots of the cities and the middle classes. This supporting force illustrated classical liberalism, stemming from the spirit of Cadiz. This marked the beginning of a long war of six years that involved all of Spain.
Key Phases and Turning Points
The war began with the uprising of the Carlist faction in the Basque Country and Navarre. In contrast, Bilbao, San Sebastián, Vitoria, and Pamplona remained faithful to Isabel II and liberalism. Unable to contend against the regular army, the Carlists organized their war efforts using guerrilla tactics.
General Zumalacárregui organized an army of men. Don Carlos entered Spain and moved towards Madrid but, unable to enter the capital, retreated north. Don Carlos sought support from absolutist powers, while Isabel II received support from England, France, and Portugal.
Zumalacárregui’s death deprived the Carlists of their best strategist and marked the beginning of a liberal reaction. General Espartero defeated Carlist troops and ended the siege of Bilbao.
The last period of the conflict was marked by Carlist ideological division:
- Transactionists: A group who favored reaching a prompt agreement with the liberals.
- Hardliners: Those who wanted to continue the war.
General Maroto, on behalf of the Carlist army, finally agreed to sign an agreement with Espartero at Vergara, effectively ending the war.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Colonel Rafael del Riego, at the head of a company of soldiers, revolted in Andalusia in 1820, proclaiming the 1812 Constitution. This forced King Fernando VII to become a constitutional monarch.
Reforms and Modernization
Fernando VII appointed a new government and called elections, resulting in a Cortes (parliament) with a majority of Liberal MPs. They restored many of the reforms initiated in Cadiz, aiming to:
- Liquidate feudalism in the country.
- Liberalize trade and industry.
- Initiate political and administrative modernization.
- Create a National Militia (a volunteer armed body) to ensure order and defend constitutional reforms.
Opposition and Internal Conflicts
These reforms aroused strong opposition from the monarchy. Fernando VII not only stopped all laws he could, but also secretly conspired against the government and sought an alliance with European absolutist powers for them to invade the country and restore absolutism.
More serious for the new regime was the opposition shown by a segment of the peasantry. The poorest peasants felt the new capitalist legislation was detrimental to them and rose against the Liberals. The traditional nobility and especially the Church encouraged rebellion against the rulers of the Triennium.
These difficulties led to clashes between the liberals themselves:
- Moderates: Favored reforms cautiously and tried not to alienate the king and nobility.
- Exaltados (Extremists): Posed the need to accelerate reforms and confront the monarch.