Spain’s 19th-20th Century: Restoration, Crisis, and Regeneration
Spain Without Pulse
The text is a contemporary testimonial narrative, journalistic in style, written by Francisco Silvela, successor to Canovas del Castillo as head of the Conservative Party.
The Restoration and its Foundations
The restoration was based on a liberal parliamentary system. The 1876 constitution, of modest nature, provided for shared sovereignty between the Courts and the Crown. The courts were organized into two chambers: the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. It proclaimed the Catholic confessional state and included an extensive bill of rights.
The pillars of the system were the Crown, Canovas, the dynastic parties, and the army. The Liberal-Conservative Party was led by Antonio Canovas del Castillo, and the Liberal-Fusion by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. The government ensured the regular alternation in power of the two main dynastic options through a corrupt electoral system. Rigging, the systematic falsification of results, was common. The system relied on chieftaincy, where influential individuals or families controlled constituencies.
Colonial Conflicts and the 1898 Crisis
In Cuba, slavery was abolished, and Cubans gained representation in the Cortes. Tensions rose due to protective tariffs imposed by Spain, hindering U.S. trade. The Cuban revolutionary party initiated the 1895 independence revolt. The government sent an army, but food shortages and poor medical care caused high mortality. After Canovas’ assassination, a new Liberal government granted autonomy to Cuba, but separatists refused to end the conflict. An insurrection also occurred in the Philippines, which was repressed, and its leader executed. In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain, using the pretext of a sunken warship. The Americans intervened in Cuba, and the Philippines came under American control. Despite the disaster, there was little political or economic crisis; the 1898 crisis was primarily moral and ideological.
Socio-Political Movements
Several socio-political movements emerged:
- Catalan nationalism, which began in Catalonia around 1830, was a cultural and literary movement advocating harmony among Spanish regions. The Unió Catalanista was founded, and the Regionalist League became the dominant force in Catalonia.
- Basque nationalism in the Basque Country was strengthened by advocates of the Basque language and culture (Euskera). Sabino Arana founded the PNV.
- Galicianism began in the mid-19th century with O Rexurdimento, rediscovering the Galician language and culture.
- Valencianism gained importance with the establishment of Nova and Juventut Valencia.
- In Andalusia, regionalism was driven by Blas Infante.
The regeneration movement, aimed at modernizing Spanish politics, was encouraged by the 1898 crisis. The military defeat led to a change in the military’s mentality and their return to politics. The new Conservative leader, Francisco Silvela, called elections, and the new government initiated a reformist policy. However, any tax increases led to strikes.
World War I and its Aftermath
Spain remained neutral during World War I, which favored economic expansion as Spain became a supplier of industrial and agricultural products. However, this growth led to price increases, worsening the situation for the working classes.
In 1917, the Russian Revolution and the end of the war significantly changed the political map of Europe, with some recognition of the right to self-determination. The economic situation resulting from the war created widespread anti-government protests. The Spanish army had too many officers, leading to discontent among lower and middle ranks and the formation of Juntas. A Catalan Parliamentary Assembly was convened but dissolved by the civil guard. The CNT and UGT signed a joint manifesto urging the government to control prices under the threat of a general strike. Violent incidents occurred, and the government responded with harsh repression. The law went into crisis in 1923, leading to the formation of successive coalition governments.
Labor Movements
Labor movements were divided into:
- Utopianism and republicanism: Socialist ideas entered Spain through Cadiz. Joaquin Abreu was a key figure. Federal republicanism resonated with the middle classes and workers.
- The Spain International: The Democratic Sexenio allowed workers’ forces to emerge, forming the first nuclei associated with the First International.
- Anarchist Currents: In 1881, the SPA Labor Federation Spanish Region was renamed. The anarchist movement opted for direct action against the state, the bourgeoisie, and the Church.
- Socialist Organizations: The New Madrid Federation became the original center of the PSOE, defined as Marxist and worker-oriented.
Economic Developments
The industrial revolution saw growth in textiles, steel, mining, and railways, along with the development of banking and the state’s role in the economy.
Oligarchy and Caciques
The author of the text is Joaquin Costa, a key representative of the regeneration movement that followed the crisis of ’98. Linked to the Krausist group and the Free Institution of Teaching, he constantly attacked the Restoration system, while representing peasant demands.
Throughout his work, he criticized Spain’s decay and lack of modernization, suggesting cultural and economic development as an alternative. His famous phrase, “pantry, school, and a hundred keys to the tomb of El Cid”, summarizes his thought. His work had a major impact in Spain.
This text was written during the 1898 crisis, which led to the loss of Spain’s colonies and marked the end of the political system devised by Canovas, known as the Restoration. The crisis led to the emergence of the regeneration movement, with Joaquín Costa as a leading figure.
The main idea is to highlight the need to change Spain to facilitate its exit from the crisis. Costa advocated for Europeanizing Spain, believing it was necessary to approach Europe to achieve “a rich Spain, a well-educated and thinking Spain, a free and self-governing Spain.”
The regenerationist movement emerged after the crisis of ’98, addressing Spain’s backwardness and decadence. Joaquin Costa, a key figure, strongly influenced the generation of ’98. Politically, it influenced Maura and Canalejas (Conservative and Liberal Party respectively), who followed the “dynastic way.” Others saw the “Republican way,” while nationalists proposed a federal structure. The “military means,” the “iron surgeon” according to Costa, was implemented by Miguel Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship.
By signing the Treaty of Paris, Spain lost its last possessions, becoming a second or third-rate power. Spain tried to compensate with the exploitation of Morocco, another failure.
Anti-Militarism
Most Spaniards opposed the war in Cuba, especially since the disadvantaged were forced to fight, while those with financial resources could avoid recruitment. Opposition to the war was a direct cause of the Tragic Week of 1909.
The 1898 crisis also significantly affected the Catalan textile sector and the import of cheap raw materials, impacting the balance of payments. Protectionist measures were implemented, but were not always effective. However, the repatriation of capital helped improve the economy somewhat.
The crisis led to a climate of depression and catastrophism, with the country considered poor and politically dominated by oligarchs and local bosses. The idea of regenerationism emerged, aiming to remodel Spain through the actions of politicians and intellectuals, such as those of the generation of ’98.
Oligarchy means “rule by the few.” During the 19th century, Spain was mostly governed by this system, dominated by the wealthier classes.
Moderate or conservative figures were the first protagonists, until the restoration of bipartisanship with the liberal-fusion. Peaceful changes of government were secured through chieftaincy, where chiefs had power outside the law to influence the electorate. They controlled elections through various means, including ballot box manipulation and rigging.
This system of control through chiefs, though criticized by intellectuals like Joaquin Costa, remained until the proclamation of the Second Republic.