Spain’s 1917 Crisis and Political Breakdown
The 1917 Crisis in Spain
Military Discontent and Juntas
The strong discontent among the military, which opposed official excesses, led to the formation of so-called Juntas de Defensa (Defense Juntas). These juntas, originating in Barcelona and spreading through most peninsular garrisons, demanded pay rises and promotions. They opposed the existing promotion system, claiming seniority as the sole criterion for advancement. Their manifesto of June 1917 called for political renewal.
Political Instability and Parliamentary Assembly
The government suspended constitutional guarantees, closing the Cortes (parliament) and imposing press censorship. In reaction, the Catalan Parliamentary Assembly was organized in Barcelona on July 5, 1917. This assembly demanded the formation of a provisional government to convene a Constituent Cortes, capable of restructuring the state on the basis of decentralization. A meeting was called for all Spanish deputies and senators, but only 71 attended, mostly Republicans and Socialists. The August strike movement inhibited bourgeois forces, who feared a larger revolutionary explosion, thus delaying constitutional reform.
Social Unrest and General Strike
The worker and trade union movement was fueled by a decline in real wages. In 1916, the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) and UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores) trade union confederations signed a joint manifesto, calling on the government to intervene and contain prices. In August 1917, the UGT, together with the PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español), decided to call a general strike. This strike had a very uneven impact, with violent incidents occurring in Madrid, Barcelona, the Basque Country, and Asturias. The government’s reaction was repressive: martial law was declared, and the army was sent to suppress the movement. Members of the strike committee were sentenced to life imprisonment.
Consequences: Coalition Governments and Failed Reforms
The crisis led to the formation of successive coalition governments, but they failed to achieve consensus on a common program that would satisfy all political forces. The most important was the so-called National Government, which established a cabinet under Antonio Maura, involving dynastic leaders and Catalan regionalists. These governments were ultimately unable to contain inflation or restore social order.
Systemic Decomposition and Political Decline
Government, Opposition, and the Army’s Role
The Turno Pacífico (peaceful rotation of power) system collapsed. The army assumed an increasing role in political life, becoming the principal agent for repressing revolutionary episodes and presenting itself as a force capable of saving the monarchy. Opposition parties failed to secure a viable alternative program. The Radical Republican Party, led by Alejandro Lerroux, suffered electoral setbacks and shifted towards more conservative positions. The Reformist Party distanced itself from republican and socialist groups, instead approaching the dynastic left (liberals). The rest of the opposition remained fragmented and lacked effective leadership. The Socialist Party was divided, with proponents of supporting the Bolsheviks forming the PCE (Partido Comunista de España), which had little influence.
Escalating Labor Disputes and the Congress of Sants
The Congress of Sants in 1918 marked the re-founding of the CNT after several years of proscription. It was agreed to create a single industrial union and reaffirmed the organization’s apolitical stance and the need for direct negotiation between workers and employers. Peasant revolts were widespread in Andalusia, with Córdoba becoming the spearhead of a movement that spread to the provinces of La Mancha and Extremadura, motivated by land hunger and declining wages and living conditions. Strike actions also severely affected industrial regions. In Barcelona, the La Canadiense strike began in 1919, halting 70% of the local industry. This strike lasted a month and a half and ended with an agreement to readmit dismissed workers, grant salary increases, and establish an eight-hour workday. However, the readmission of workers was not fully honored, leading to a restart of the strike, which was then repressed by employers.
The “Gunman Period” and Radicalized Conflict
The “Gunman Period” (pistolerismo) was a time when the conflict between workers and employers became extremely radicalized. Often, violent anarchist activists murdered businessmen and authorities. In retaliation, employers hired gunmen to assassinate union leaders, leading to a cycle of violence.