Spain’s 1898 Crisis: Loss of Colonies and National Impact

Posted on Sep 23, 2025 in History

The loss of Spain’s last major colonies—Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines—in 1898 triggered a profound national crisis, famously known as the “Disaster of ’98.” This period generated widespread demoralization and disgust with the perceived political and military weakness of the government, marking a new stage in Spain’s contemporary history.

Roots of Conflict: Cuba’s Struggle for Independence

As a background to this situation, the long Ten Years’ War (1868-1878) in Cuba stands out. Fueled by the island’s economic growth and an unacceptable trade monopoly imposed by Spain, a revolutionary junta, led by Colonel Céspedes, rebelled against the colonial government in October 1868. The revolt quickly escalated into a civil war. In 1878, the Peace of Zanjón was signed, ending the conflict and including a promise of political reforms that were largely ignored by the Spanish government.

The 1895 Uprising and its Causes

In 1895, a new separatist uprising began, led by figures such as José Martí and Antonio Maceo. The causes of this revolt were multifaceted:

  • The breach of the peace promised in Zanjón.
  • Lack of control over abuses by plantation owners.
  • Growing U.S. endorsement of the insurgents.
  • The prohibition of free trade to Cuba, reaffirmed by the 1891 Tariff Law.
  • The failed autonomy project of the Liberal government (1894).
  • The maturation of the indigenous independence movement.

Stages of the Spanish-American War

The war for independence progressed through a series of critical stages:

  1. The Liberal government attempted a policy of negotiation through General Martínez Campos, which failed, leading to his resignation in 1896.
  2. The Conservative government then sent General Weyler, who attempted to isolate the guerrillas by concentrating the rural population and initiating a war of attrition. This strategy ultimately failed, as the guerrillas continued to receive arms and supplies from the United States.
  3. In 1897, the new Liberal government replaced Weyler and began to develop a project for Cuban autonomy.
  4. American intervention and the disaster of 1898. The incident that precipitated U.S. intervention was the explosion of the battleship USS Maine, anchored in Havana Bay. The United States held Spain responsible and proposed purchasing the Spanish island, a proposal Spain refused.
  5. In the Philippines, the war began in 1896 with an uprising against the metropolis. On May 1, 1898, the U.S. Navy took Cavite and destroyed the Spanish fleet. In Cuba, the city of Santiago de Cuba was taken on July 3, and the defeat and collapse of the Spanish Armada led to the occupation of San Juan, Puerto Rico, and an armistice.
  6. The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, stipulated the relinquishment by Spain of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the island of Guam to the United States. Separately, the Hispano-German Treaty, signed in 1899, ceded the rest of Spain’s Pacific islands (the Carolines, Marianas, and Palau) to the German Empire in exchange for economic compensation.

These events were part of the broader imperialist ambitions of great powers like the U.S. and Germany, which would eventually contribute to the First World War.

Aftermath and the Rise of Regeneracionismo

For Spain, the “Disaster of ’98” was a crucial situation with far-reaching consequences:

  • Significant human and economic losses.
  • The absence of colonial markets, impacting trade.
  • Widespread discontent with successive governments (especially conservatives and liberals) due to their inability to find solutions.

This period gave way to a new generation of political leaders, including conservatives Francisco Silvela and Antonio Maura, and liberals like Canalejas. Among the military, disillusioned with the political class, a nationalist sentiment grew. Public opinion faced a sense of resignation and fatality, while among intellectuals, a Regeneracionista movement emerged. This movement denounced the isolation of the electorate, political corruption, electoral manipulation, and economic and social backwardness.

Its most significant representative was Joaquín Costa, who famously criticized “oligarchy and despotism.” His program advocated for the integrity of the electoral system, parliamentary dignity, education reform, social assistance, and the common good. However, his absence from direct political life limited the immediate impact of his proposals. Nevertheless, politicians of the era adopted many of his Regeneracionista ideas into their platforms.

The End of an Era: Alfonso XIII and the Restoration Crisis

In this context, in 1902, Alfonso XIII reached the age of majority and was proclaimed king, starting a new stage in the history of Spain: the Crisis of the Restoration.