Spain’s 1808 Crisis and the Dawn of Liberalism
The Crisis of 1808
In 1808, bankruptcy and political instability plagued the Old Regime in Spain. These events marked the end of the Modern Age and the beginning of contemporary Spanish history.
1. Origins of the Crisis
To defeat England, Napoleon decreed the Continental System, aiming to economically strangle his rival. Portugal, refusing to comply, was invaded by Napoleon. In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed between Napoleon and Godoy, allowing French troops passage through Spain to Portugal. The treaty also stipulated the division of Portugal into three parts, one becoming a principality for Godoy. French troops entered Spain in 1808, with detachments stationed in major Spanish garrisons. Clashes soon erupted with the Spanish people, angered by the excesses of the French soldiers. Napoleon’s plans included replacing the Spanish royal family.
2. The Mutiny of Aranjuez
On March 19, 1808, while the royal family was in Aranjuez, a riot broke out. The people stormed Godoy’s palace, demanding his dismissal by the king. The riot was instigated by factions of the nobility, led by Prince Ferdinand, against King Charles IV and Godoy. Godoy was dismissed and Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
3. The Uprising of May 2nd in Madrid
Both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII appealed to Napoleon. Charles sought help regaining the throne, while Ferdinand sought recognition from the major European power. Napoleon offered to mediate, summoning the Spanish royal family to Bayonne, France. On May 2, 1808, as the royal family prepared to leave Madrid, the people of Madrid rioted. The French army harshly suppressed the uprising. The Mayor of Móstoles publicized the events in Madrid, declaring war on the French. Riots and uprisings against French troops spread, igniting the War of Independence.
4. Abdications in Bayonne
Napoleon secured the abdication of Ferdinand VII in favor of his father, Charles IV, who then abdicated in favor of Napoleon. Napoleon subsequently placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne.
Characteristics of the War of Independence
a) Liberation War
Although Spain remained formally independent, most Spaniards viewed Joseph Bonaparte as a puppet of Napoleon. The war was a struggle against French occupation and a defense of Ferdinand VII’s rights.
b) National War
It was led by the nation in arms, with widespread popular participation. Two typical strategies emerged:
- Guerrillas: Armed peasant groups utilizing their knowledge of the terrain. They launched swift surprise attacks and then retreated.
- Sieges: Popular resistance hampered French occupation of towns. Notable sieges included Zaragoza and Gerona.
c) Civil War
The War of Independence also had the character of a Spanish civil war, between pro-French supporters of Joseph Bonaparte and patriots loyal to Ferdinand VII.
Development of the War
The war unfolded in three stages:
- May to November 1808: Uprisings spread across the Iberian Peninsula. In Andalusia, a rebuilt Spanish army defeated the French at the Battle of Bailén, forcing French troops to retreat north.
- 1808 to 1812: Napoleon personally intervened, sending reinforcements and occupying much of Spain. However, control remained incomplete due to guerrilla actions led by Juan Martín Díez, and the intervention of England, which landed an army in Portugal and attacked the French.
- 1812 to 1814: Anglo-Spanish forces defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Salamanca. The French retreated, suffering another defeat at the Battle of Vitoria. In 1813, facing problems in Europe, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Valençay, recognizing Ferdinand VII as King of Spain. In early 1814, the last French troops left Spain.
The Bourgeois Liberal Revolution
1. Concept of the Bourgeois Liberal Revolution
The bourgeois-liberal revolution transformed the Old Regime. The bourgeoisie sought to create a new economic, social, and political order: the Liberal State. Their aim was to ensure economic liberalism, advocating absolute individual freedom in economic matters (freedom to buy and sell). The bourgeoisie believed this was the only path to individual enrichment and overall progress. This required removing feudal constraints on liberty. Three basic steps were involved:
- Abolition of Primogeniture and other forms of entailed land: Encouraging investment in land and free land sales, incentivizing landlords to modernize agriculture.
- Abolition of Guilds and Trade Monopolies: Promoting freedom of industry and commerce, allowing the bourgeoisie to produce and trade freely to increase profits.
- Abolition of Feudal Rights and Obligations: Favoring peasant mobility and freedom of contract, enabling wage labor.
To achieve this, the bourgeoisie needed a political system granting them access to power (political liberalism).
2. Characteristics of the Bourgeois Revolution in Spain
In Spain, liberal groups were small, limited to:
- The commercial bourgeoisie of coastal cities (Cadiz, La Coruña, Gijón, Barcelona, Valencia), who had prospered from colonial trade.
- Enlightened intellectuals aware of the need to modernize the state and abolish the Old Regime. Some of these intellectuals were nobles who favored modernizing their estates.
These groups lacked the strength to carry out a bourgeois revolution alone. However, the political crisis caused by the French invasion and the War of Independence provided an opportunity.
3. The Formation of Juntas and the Creation of a New Political Order
Local juntas were established, comprised of local elites (bourgeoisie, intellectuals, professionals). These became new local organs of power, enabling liberal-minded groups to gain influence. Local juntas formed provincial juntas, governing larger territories. The need to coordinate their efforts led to the creation of the Supreme Central Junta, composed of delegates from the provincial juntas. The Central Junta, based in Seville, led the war against the French and governed areas not controlled by them. The liberals, being part of the enlightened elite, played a significant role in the formation of the juntas, allowing them to initiate the bourgeois revolution in Spain. This revolution, given the limited strength of the liberals, would not have been possible without the opportunity presented by the dismantling of the state following the uprisings against the French. The revolutionary project culminated when the Junta convened the Cortes in Cadiz in 1810. The Cortes de Cádiz began dismantling the Old Regime and drafted a constitution promulgated in 1812.
4. Joseph Bonaparte and the Francophiles
Joseph Bonaparte had support from certain groups (Francophiles) in Spain. Their motivations varied:
- Initially, much of the nobility and clergy supported Joseph Bonaparte and opposed the popular uprisings. They saw the French as ensuring order against the masses. Only when the uprisings became widespread and Joseph’s position weakened did these groups join the patriot cause.
- Many Francophiles were enlightened intellectuals who believed that Bonaparte’s reforms could modernize Spain, regardless of the ruling dynasty.
5. The Reform Project of Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte attempted to implement reforms dismantling the Old Regime’s economic and social structures. In 1808, Napoleon convened an Assembly of Notables in Bayonne, proposing the Constitution of Bayonne, Spain’s first constitution. This was a granted text, a concession from the monarch, not developed by representatives of the nation. The Bayonne Constitution established an authoritarian political system where the king retained extensive powers. However, unlike absolute monarchy, the king had to consult the Cortes (of an estates-based character) before passing laws. Significantly, the Constitution of Bayonne included economic reforms such as abolishing primogeniture, establishing free trade and commerce, and eliminating the Inquisition and estate privileges.