Spain’s 17th Century Crisis: Validos, Revolts, and the Fall of the Habsburgs
The Validos: Royal Favorites in 17th-Century Spain
The system of validos, or royal favorites, was widespread during the 17th century in several European countries, particularly Spain. Their position was not institutional but resulted from a personal appointment; their power lay in the confidence the king placed in them. When this trust declined, the favorite lost all power. This system often created a significant rift between the king and his subjects. A prominent early example was Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma, the main political leader during much of the reign of Philip III.
The Count-Duke of Olivares and the Crisis of 1640
The Count-Duke of Olivares embarked on an ambitious tax reform that he sought to impose authoritatively. His goal was to increase the Crown’s income to finance its costly foreign policy. Among the reforms, the most important aimed to ensure that other kingdoms increased their contributions, thereby preventing Castile from bearing the tax burden almost exclusively. To achieve this, he presented a project known as the Union of Arms, which would create an army of 140,000 men, recruited and maintained by each kingdom proportionally to its demographic and economic resources.
The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)
The outbreak of war with France in 1635 triggered the conflict between the monarch and the kingdoms. With the Pyrenean border endangered by foreign enemies, Olivares saw an opportunity to force Catalonia to contribute troops and money. Royal tercios (infantry regiments) were also stationed in Catalonia. In May 1640, a rebellion of peasants attacked the tercios. This rebellion escalated into civil war. Finally, after twelve years of conflict, King Philip IV’s army recaptured Barcelona, ending the secession.
The Portuguese Revolt and Olivares’s Fall
The example of Barcelona weakened the Crown’s authority and encouraged Portugal to rebel. Portugal felt poorly protected by Spain. In 1640, Portuguese nobles, already discontent, revolted, initiating a war for independence that lasted until 1668, when the Spanish Crown finally recognized the independence of the Portuguese kingdom. Overwhelmed by the escalating crises, Olivares demanded assistance from the nobles of various kingdoms, but most abandoned the court. In 1643, Philip IV was forced to dismiss the Count-Duke of Olivares.
Widespread Rebellions Persist Across Spain
Even after Olivares’s dismissal, the unrest did not end. In 1643, riots and tumults erupted in the Crown of Aragon and Valencia, fueled by the nobility’s fear of war and their desire to protect the autonomy of these two kingdoms. In 1647, a major riot occurred in Palermo, and a few months later, Naples also revolted. Finally, between 1647 and 1652, riots also occurred in various places in Andalusia. These protests were directed at the nobility, high taxes, and the rising price of bread.
Weakening of Monarchical Power and Aristocratic Resurgence
Despite all these upheavals, the monarchy survived. During the regency of Mariana of Austria and the reign of Charles II, the aristocracy regained much of its power. The privileges and autonomy of the territories were largely maintained. An unwritten agreement, often termed ‘neo-foralism’ or ‘neo-feudalism’, emerged between the realms and the Crown to avoid further confrontation over taxes or extending royal power. A key figure embodying this neo-foralism and neo-feudalism was John Joseph of Austria, an illegitimate son of Philip IV. He led a coup, proclaiming himself prime minister and effectively ending the era of the validos.
The End of Habsburg Rule in Spain
In the last decade of the 17th century, social unrest resurfaced. In Catalonia, peasant revolts continued. In Valencia, the Second Germania, a revolt against the lords and their income, erupted. In 1699, riots occurred in Valladolid due to a lack of bread. In Madrid, the ‘Mutiny of the Cats’ led to the resignation of Oropesa. Charles II finally bequeathed the crown to Louis XIV’s grandson, Philip of Bourbon. With this decision, the king aimed to ensure the unity and stability of the Spanish monarchy.