Spain Under Philip II: Conflicts, Economy, and Administration
The international political idea was the defense of Catholicism and the superiority of the Empire in Europe.
Military Campaigns and Conflicts
1577: The last crusade against Spain’s armed Turks. The alliance of Rome and Venice defeated the Turkish navy at the Battle of Lepanto, but this did not completely block Turkish activity in the Mediterranean.
1566: Revolt of Flanders. Philip II made no concessions to the Protestants. The rebels managed to get help from French and German Protestant princes, and England. The long war was hard, and Philip II could not defeat the Flemish rebels. A compromise was reached: the southern provinces remained loyal to the Hispanic monarchy, while the northern Protestant provinces became an independent state. This resulted in immense expense that fell on Castile.
The relationship with England was initially good. Philip married Mary Tudor (Queen of England). But after her death, Elizabeth I ascended the throne, and she supported Flanders. Thus, in 1585, a war with England began for religious reasons and for control of America.
1588: England’s invasion attempt with the Armada failed.
The relationship with France involved little conflict. Regarding Portugal, upon the king’s death, Philip II legitimately accounted for inheritance, thus becoming king of the neighboring country. This achieved the unity of the peninsula claimed by the Catholic Monarchs, and the merger of the two overseas empires. Portugal continued to enjoy independence in practice, because it was only a personal union.
Royal Power and State Administration
Royal power increased, and state administration improved. Politically, the nobility and the Church were submitted in exchange for maintaining their hegemony and increasing the system of seigniorial privileges. Carlos I and Philip II continued the line initiated by the Catholic Monarchs and developed an authoritarian monarchy.
The monarchy was surrounded by a set of councils. The delegates acted as viceroys of the king in the realms of the Crown of Aragon, Navarre, Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples, in addition to the American territories. The cortes (parliaments) continued to lose power. Aldermen and mayors in Castile, mein and dances in Navarre and Aragon were appointed to royal positions. In local and municipal authorities, there was a steady degradation of municipal autonomy through the appointment of magistrates and royal aldermen. As for the administration of justice, the Habsburgs created new audiencias (courts) and maintained traditional institutions. Each realm of the monarchy had its peculiar institutions; only the common foreign policy was directed by the monarch.
Uprising of the Moors and Defense of Aragon’s Rights
The reign of Felipe II was marked by internal conflicts. The Moorish population continued to be subjected to pressures to abandon their customs and assimilate completely to Christians, while their members were subject to constant abuse and economic pressure. In 1568, the Moors of the Alpujarras in Granada revolted. After being defeated, they were expelled from Granada and distributed throughout Castile in order to facilitate their integration.
In the late 16th century, a rebellion broke out in Aragon, in this case for the defense of their privileges, a symptom of the desire to maintain the specific characteristics among the territories which formed the Hispanic monarchy. The problem was essentially political: Antonio Perez was accused of treason by Felipe II. Perez appealed to his condition as an Aragonese to seek refuge in Zaragoza and defend their liberties. Felipe II claimed delivery through the tribunal of the Inquisition, the only institution common to the whole monarchy. Aragon’s refusal to grant the king’s petition was led by the Chief Justice of Aragon, in charge of defending her rights, Lanuza. The king sent an army that occupied Zaragoza and executed Lanuza and others.
Economy and Population
The most populated territories corresponded to the Crown of Castile. This reflects the basic demographic dominance of Castilian hegemony. The majority of the population was engaged in agriculture. Land was expanded, and crops were grown, but there were no technologically advanced methods. There was a general delay in craftsmanship. The massive influx of American silver caused an increase in the amount of money and resulted in an inflationary process that affected the entire European economy.