Spain under Charles V & Philip II: Conflicts & Iberian Union

Posted on May 4, 2025 in History

The Empire of Charles V: Conflicts and Challenges

Internal Conflicts: Comunidades and Germanies

In 1516, Charles I received a vast inheritance, the fruit of the marriage policy of the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC). In the Iberian Peninsula, two major conflicts arose during his early reign:

  • The Revolt of the Comunidades: This was a revolt by members of the Castilian Cortes, protesting the presence of foreigners in high Castilian positions and the monarch’s perceived lack of concern for Castilian issues. It evolved into an anti-seigneurial movement, gaining the support of peasants. However, the nobility and the monarchy ultimately defeated the rebels in the Battle of Villalar (1521), after which its leaders were executed.
  • The Revolt of the Germanies: Occurring in Valencia, Mallorca, and Murcia, this conflict (more social than political) began with the rebellion of artisans and small landowners. They attempted to take control of cities, taking advantage of the nobility’s flight due to the plague. They gained the support of peasants and the lower clergy, but a royal army intervened, defeating the insurgents.

External Challenges and Imperial Complexity

Charles’s reign was complex, and he could not fully realize his political project of universal Christian empire due to several factors:

  • The active opposition of France.
  • Opposition from German Protestant princes, who resisted imperial universalism.
  • The emergence of strong national monarchies.
  • The ongoing war against the Ottoman Turks.

The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II

Inheritance and Foreign Policy Challenges

Charles I abdicated, granting his son Philip II the Hispanic, Burgundian, and American territories, forming the Hispanic Monarchy. His brother Ferdinand received the Austrian possessions of the Habsburgs and the rights to the German imperial crown. Philip II faced numerous challenges:

  • Rivalry with France: France sought to conquer Italian territories but was defeated by Spain in several battles, notably at Saint-Quentin (1557, treaty signed 1559).
  • Counter-Reformation: Faced with the entry of reformist ideals into Castile, Philip II positioned himself as a leader of the Counter-Reformation, symbolized by the construction of the El Escorial monastery.
  • Confrontation with the Ottoman Turks: Philip II, allied with Venice and the Papacy, achieved a major naval victory against the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
  • Revolt of Flanders (Dutch Revolt): This protracted conflict stemmed from political reasons (the nobility’s desire for independence) and religious factors (many nobles converted to Protestantism).
  • Confrontation with England: Rivalry led to the creation of the ill-fated Spanish Armada in 1588, which attempted to invade England but failed.

Internal Issues and Administration

Castile became the nerve center of the Hispanic Monarchy under Philip II, with Madrid established as its capital. He managed to fulfill a long-held ambition of the Catholic Monarchs: the integration of Portugal into the Hispanic Monarchy (see Iberian Union below). However, he also had to face several internal problems:

  • A Morisco revolt in the Alpujarras (1568-1571).
  • The Aragonese conflict, a jurisdictional dispute involving his former secretary, Antonio Pérez.
  • Severe financial difficulties due to excessive military spending, leading to state bankruptcy four times during his reign.

The Iberian Union under Philip II

Achieving Unification

Iberian Unity refers to the unification of the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula under a single monarch. This project had been pursued by the Visigoths and later by the Catholic Monarchs through their marriage policy. Philip II achieved this unification following a succession crisis in Portugal. King Sebastian of Portugal died in 1578 and was succeeded by his elderly great-uncle, Cardinal Henry, who died childless in 1580. Two main claimants vied for the throne:

  • António, Prior of Crato (supported by the lower nobility, clergy, and commoners).
  • Philip II of Spain (supported by the Portuguese high nobility and clergy, who saw benefits in union).

The confrontation favored Philip, whose troops, led by the Duke of Alba, were victorious in 1580.

Nature of the Union

In 1581, the Portuguese Cortes (parliament) in Tomar recognized Philip II of Spain as King Philip I of Portugal. He promised to maintain the kingdom’s laws, institutions, currency, and privileges. Therefore, the Iberian Union was a personal union: the kingdoms were united under the same monarch, fulfilling a goal sought by the Catholic Monarchs, but they maintained their separate economic, administrative, and legislative independence. Portugal would eventually regain its independence in 1640.