Spain: Revolution, Restoration & Reign of Alfonso XII (1868-1876)
The Revolution of 1868 and the Provisional Government (1868-1870)
The “Glorious” Revolution of 1868 stemmed from a confluence of factors: the economic, industrial, financial, and livelihood crises of 1866; the growing discredit of the crown due to corruption; the political monopoly of moderates; the exclusion of other political forces; and repressive policies. Opposition parties united in the Pact of Ostend to overthrow Isabella II and convene a Constituent Assembly.
A provisional government, led by Serrano and Prim, was formed. The 1869 Constitution established a parliamentary monarchy, national sovereignty represented by bicameral courts, universal male suffrage, and extensive individual and collective freedoms. Reforms included a tariff framework law, a mining law, and the peseta as the monetary unit. The search for a new dynasty aligned with these progressive principles led to the selection of Amadeus of Savoy.
Reign of Amadeo I of Savoy (1871-1873)
Amadeo I respected the Constitution but lacked support and struggled to maintain stability. Challenges included the assassination of Prim (his main supporter), Alfonsino conspiracies to restore the Bourbons, a new Carlist uprising defending Catholicism and tradition, republican opposition, agitation among the popular classes, and the emergence of the labor movement. These factors culminated in Amadeo’s abdication.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic was a period of great instability, marked by divisions between federalist and unionist republicans.
First Federal Stage:
Under Presidents Figueras and Pi y Margall, reforms included the suppression of consumption taxes, reduction of the voting age, and regulation of child labor. A constitutional project, based on the U.S. model, organized Spain as a federation of 15 states, with church-state separation and broad freedoms.
Second Unitary Stage:
Presidents Salmerón and Castelar faced the risk of state disintegration. They pursued a policy of supporting the army to maintain order, granting it extensive powers. This process culminated in General Pavia’s coup, dissolving the courts.
Third Authoritarian Stage:
General Serrano presided over an authoritarian government that, with the army’s help, suppressed cantonalist, labor, and Carlist uprisings. Meanwhile, Alfonsinos, under Cánovas del Castillo, prepared for the restoration of Alfonso XII, gaining support from conservative sectors seeking order, stability, and security. A pronouncement by General Martínez Campos led to Alfonso XII’s proclamation as king.
Reign of Alfonso XII: The Cánovas System
Alfonso XII’s reign inaugurated the Restoration, a period that re-established a liberal parliamentary regime, though not initially democratic. His arrival in Sagunto and Martínez Campos’ proclamation solidified his position.
Origins of the Restoration:
The Alfonsino party prepared for the Bourbon return during the sexenio. Cánovas del Castillo drafted the Manifesto of Sandhurst to unite social sectors wary of the sexenio’s radicalism. This manifesto embodied the Restoration’s political program: a liberal, Catholic monarchy and a system integrating all liberals who accepted the monarchy, including progressives and democrats, to achieve political stability.
Fundamentals of the Cánovas System:
The 1876 Constitution, lasting until 1923, was based on the 1845 Constitution but incorporated aspects of the 1869 Constitution. Key features included shared sovereignty between the king and the courts, extensive monarchical powers (appointment of ministers, supreme command of the army, legislative initiative, convening and dissolving the courts, veto power), a bicameral legislature (Congress elected by census suffrage and a Senate composed of dignitaries and royal appointees), rights and freedoms similar to those of 1869, and religious tolerance with Catholicism as the state religion. This constitution reflected Cánovas’s ideology: political pragmatism, defense of the “historical constitution,” a pessimistic view of Spanish history, and a focus on stability, pacification, and the military’s withdrawal from political life.
Dynastic Political Parties:
These parties accepted the monarchy and were not mass parties but rather groups of prominent figures connected by personal ties. The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas del Castillo, drew support from the aristocracy, bourgeoisie, church, and army, and advocated for order and authority under census suffrage. The Liberal Party, led by Sagasta, represented the industrial and middle classes, along with progressive and democratic sectors, supporting reforms and an expanded electoral system.
The Turno Pacífico (Peaceful Rotation):
The managed alternation of power between these dynastic parties aimed to end military coups, achieve stability, and integrate all liberals into the system. This was achieved through manipulated elections involving practices like caciquismo (manipulation of voters, especially in rural areas), encasillado (pre-arranged candidate lists agreed upon by both parties), and pucherazo (fraudulent practices like manipulating voter lists or impersonating voters) to ensure the desired outcome.