Spain: Monarchy’s Fall & Republic’s Rise (1917-1936)
The Last Years of the Monarchy (1917-1931)
The Crisis of 1917
Following the Great War, Spain faced a delicate situation regarding the monarchy. Parliamentarians demanded the convening of Parliament, while trade unions like the CNT and UGT called for strikes, aiming to overthrow the government. Spain was plunged into a severe crisis.
Governments of Concentration (1917-1923)
Between 1917 and 1923, Spain’s political instability resulted in thirteen different governments. Trade unions gained significant influence, with the CNT reaching 700,000 members, led by figures like Salvador Seguí, Ángel Pestaña, and Juan Peiró. In 1921, the Spanish army’s defeat at Annual (Moroccan Rif) further destabilized the nation.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1931)
In 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, allied with King Alfonso XIII and launched a coup, establishing a dictatorship inspired by Italian Fascism. The reforms included:
- Suspension of the Constitution
- Dissolution of Parliament
- Banning of political parties and unions
- Dismissal of officials (mayors, deputies, etc.)
- Censorship of the press
- Abolition of the Commonwealth
By 1929, support for the dictatorship waned. In 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned, appointing General Dámaso Berenguer to head the government and prepare for general elections, aiming to restore constitutional legitimacy.
From Monarchy to Republic
Proclamation of the Republic
Municipal elections held on April 12, 1931, saw anti-monarchist groups united under the 1930 Pact of San Sebastián. The election results favored the anti-monarchists, leading Alfonso XIII to exile on April 14, 1931, and the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.
Provisional Government
A provisional government comprising Republicans, Socialists, and Catalan nationalists implemented reforms, including:
- Amnesty for political prisoners
- Social reforms (8-hour workday, mixed juries of employers and workers)
- Establishment of a provisional government in Catalonia
- Approval of a new Constitution in December 1931
The Constitution of 1931
The Constitution of 1931 granted universal suffrage, including women’s suffrage, championed by figures like Clara Campoamor. Key features included:
- Universal suffrage
- Declaration of individual rights and public/private freedoms
- Protection of private property
- Legislative power vested in the Courts
- Executive power vested in the Council of Ministers and the President of the Republic
- Judicial independence
- Provision for autonomous governments
Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became President, and Manuel Azaña headed the government, formed by Republicans, Socialists, and Nationalists.
Republican Catalonia
The Provisional Generalitat
Francesc Macià, leader of Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya, proclaimed the Catalan Republic. Negotiations with the Spanish Republic led to the establishment of the Generalitat. Its first task was drafting a Statute of Autonomy, which, after approval by 99% of voters in a referendum, was presented to the Madrid Parliament and approved on September 9, 1932.
The Statute of Autonomy of 1932
The Statute recognized Catalonia as an autonomous region within Spain, with its own Parliament, government, and President of the Generalitat. Catalan and Spanish were recognized as official languages.
Political Forces
Main Political Parties:
- Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Left): Francesc Macià and Lluís Companys
- Acció Catalana Republicana (Center)
- Lliga Regionalista (Right): Francesc Cambó
Workers’ Parties:
- CNT (anarcho-syndicalist)
- POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification)
- PSUC (Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia)
In the November 1932 elections, Esquerra Republicana won, with Francesc Macià as President of the Generalitat and Lluís Companys as President of the Parliament.
The Work of the Generalitat
The Generalitat continued its work, creating schools, institutes, and the Autonomous University of Barcelona. It improved working conditions and teachers’ salaries, standardized the Catalan language, and published Pompeu Fabra’s Catalan dictionary.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Republican Reforms
- Military Reform: Manuel Azaña’s reforms allowed many military officers to retire, weakening opposition to the Republic.
- Church and Educational Reform: The new Constitution separated church and state, abolished religious education, introduced civil marriage and burial, and drafted a divorce bill.
- Regional Autonomy: The government developed Statutes of Autonomy and promoted decentralization.
- Land Reform: Uncultivated land owned by wealthy landowners was to be distributed among poor farmers.
Opposition to Reform
Conservatism: Large landowners, the Catholic Church, the army, and the middle and upper classes opposed the reforms. Political parties like the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups), led by José María Gil-Robles, and the Falange (FE), founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, emerged.
Working Class: Groups like the UGT and anarchist organizations like the FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation) revolted, seeking to transform society.
The Conservative Biennium and the Popular Front (1933-1936)
Conservative Governments
In 1933, a political crisis led to new elections, won by right-wing parties. Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party became Prime Minister with CEDA’s support. The new government halted the previous reforms, leading to clashes with left-wing parties.
The Revolt of 1934
In October 1934, Lluís Companys proclaimed the Catalan State within the Spanish Republic. The Spanish government swiftly suppressed the revolt, dissolved the Catalan government, annulled the Statute, and imprisoned Companys.
The Popular Front (1936)
Following the Straperlo corruption scandal, new elections were held in 1936. The Popular Front (a coalition of left-wing parties) emerged, along with other groups:
- Popular Front (Left): Aiming to continue the reforms.
- Catalan Order Front, National Bloc, CEDA, Falange (Right): Seeking a more conservative constitution.
The Popular Front won, with Manuel Azaña as President and Santiago Casares Quiroga as Prime Minister. The reforms resumed, and the Generalitat of Catalonia was reinstated.
The Coup Preparations
The election results and a climate of violence, culminating in the assassination of Calvo Sotelo, led right-wing forces to plan a coup.
The Civil War
The Military Uprising
In 1936, a military uprising, supported by Falangists and elements within the army stationed in Spanish Morocco, took place. While the coup failed in Catalonia, Madrid, the Basque Country, Asturias, Santander, Valencia, and Extremadura, it succeeded elsewhere, dividing Spain and triggering the Civil War.
Internationalization of the Conflict
The coup received support from Germany, Italy, and Portugal, while other countries remained neutral. The Republic, despite support from the USSR and International Brigades, faced a difficult struggle.