Spain in the 19th Century: From Isabella II to Alfonso XII
Liberalism: A political or social philosophy advocating individual freedom, parliamentary systems, and government guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties. Key principles include:
Nationalism: The policy or doctrine of asserting the interests of one’s own nation, viewed as separate from the interests of other nations or the common interests of all nations.
Democracy: A form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
The Reign of Isabella II
Maria Cristina’s Regency: Isabella’s mother, Maria Cristina, became regent because Isabella was too young to rule. She allied with the liberal parties. Ecclesiastical confiscations under Mendizabal (a decree to expropriate and privatize monastic properties during a progressive period) occurred. In 1840, she resigned due to political confrontations.
General Espartero: Regent (1840-1843). Allied with the Progressive Party, he was a military leader with progressive ideas. He ruled in an authoritarian manner, quickly losing supporters. A rebellion forced his resignation, and Isabella became queen.
Isabella II: Two political parties supported the queen and alternated in power: the Moderate Liberal Party and the Progressive Party. Various constitutions were proposed depending on which party held power.
Problems with Isabella II: Isabella II was considered of age at 13 and faced several political problems. Two new political parties opposed to the monarchy emerged: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Electoral fraud was common, causing popular discontent. Three periods stand out:
- Moderate Decade (1844-1854): Dominated by General Narvaez and the Moderate Party. The Moderate Constitution of 1845 favored the monarchy. Relations with the Church were re-established.
- Progressive Biennium (1854-1856): Dominated by General Espartero and the Progressive Party. A new, progressive constitution was drafted in 1856 but never came into force. Ecclesiastical confiscations under Mendizabal continued.
- Last Years (1856-1868): Moderates and the new Union Liberal party led by O’Donnell alternated in power. Opposition to the regime increased during this period. Different political parties agreed to sign the Ostende Pact in 1866 to overthrow Isabella II.
Economic Problems with Isabella II: One of the systems used to raise money to pay the state’s debt was the confiscation of ecclesiastical and municipal properties. This had negative consequences for farmers: expropriated lands were bought by the bourgeoisie, common lands were sold, and religious orders ceased to help the poor.
Capitalism and Imperialism
Political Tension at the End of the 19th Century
After the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, there were no wars between the European powers. However, relationships between these nations were characterized by increasing tension. At the same time, many countries were increasing their production of arms and military equipment. The German unification made Germany the most powerful country in Europe.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): The Second French Empire opposed German expansion through Europe and declared war on the Kingdom of Prussia, aided by the North German Confederation of which it was a member.
Prussia won the war, bringing significant changes to Europe. France had to surrender the region of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany.
Germany’s Foreign Policy
- The Bismarckian System: German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck established a system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy with two objectives: the isolation of France and the balance of power in the Balkans.
- The Policies of Wilhelm II: He desired a more aggressive policy in Europe. In 1890, he dismissed Bismarck and abandoned his system of alliances. Wilhelm then began a policy of expansionism known as Weltpolitik.
The Bourbon Restoration in Spain: After the end of the First Spanish Republic in December 1874, a military uprising established Alfonso XII and a parliamentary monarchy. This period was marked by stability, with the new constitution of 1876. Two new political parties emerged: the Liberals and the Conservatives. The Third Carlist War also took place. In December 1874, a military uprising crowned Alfonso XII. The government of Sagasta did not oppose this. He reigned from 1874 to 1885.
Constitution of 1876: Conceived by Cánovas del Castillo, parliament was initially elected by a census, then by universal male suffrage from 1890. While theoretically democratic, power was shared by two alternating political parties in the”turno system” Sovereignty was shared between the king and parliament (Cortes). A two-chamber system elected the Congress and Senate. The monarchy was strengthened.
Two-Party System: The political system was known as the turno system. Two political parties alternated in power: the Liberals and the Conservatives. This system was fraudulent, with elections manipulated, but it was necessary to maintain stability.
The Third Carlist War (1872-1876): Carlist forces managed to occupy several towns in the interior of Spain. They proclaimed the restoration of Catalan, Valencian, and Aragonese fueros. After four years of war, the Carlist pretender, Carlos VII, went into exile in France.
Other Issues: Unofficial political groups opposed the government because they rejected the two-party system, considered unfair. Regionalist movements developed in some regions of Spain.
Alfonso XII’s Death: In November 1885, Alfonso XII died at the age of 28. His wife, Maria Cristina of Austria, became regent for their son, Alfonso XIII. She ruled from 1886 to 1902 until her son was considered of age. During her regency, Spain lost its last territories in America (Puerto Rico and Cuba, along with the Philippines).