Spain in the 19th Century: From Cádiz to the Crisis of ’98
The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812
The power vacuum in Spain, caused by the refusal to accept Joseph Bonaparte as king, led the Central Board to convene a meeting of the Cortes in Cádiz in 1812. Representatives elected by the people drafted a constitution based on political liberalism, recognizing national sovereignty, the division of powers, and universal male suffrage. They also approved measures to abolish the Old Regime, including the suppression of lordships and the Inquisition, and established equality before the law and taxes for all citizens.
However, the war that began in Madrid on May 2nd triggered a popular uprising against French legislation, hindering the implementation of the Cádiz laws. Not all who rose against the French supported the reforms, as the formerly privileged classes wished to return to the Old Regime.
Colonial Uprisings and Independence Movements
In 1816, a series of uprisings generalized across Spanish colonies:
- General San Martín defeated the Spanish in Chile, achieving independence.
- Simón Bolívar founded Gran Colombia after defeating the Spanish, which later divided into Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama.
- José de Sucre achieved the emancipation of Peru and Bolivia.
- Iturbide achieved independence for Mexico in 1821.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The successful pronouncement led by General Riego in Seville in 1820 forced Ferdinand VII to abide by the Constitution of 1812. A body of armed volunteers was created to defend the liberal order. However, Ferdinand VII opposed this reform and enlisted the help of the Holy Alliance. France intervened in Spain, and under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, “The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis” defeated the Liberals and reinstated Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.
Liberal Success: The Progressive Government
Maria Christina’s government introduced a moderate liberalism. However, a popular uprising brought Mendizábal to power, representing progressive liberalism. He implemented a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy with key reforms, including the dissolution of the seignorial regime, the extinction of the guilds, and census suffrage.
The Regency of Espartero
In the 1837 elections, the moderates won and gave a conservative shift to the liberal revolution, supported by Maria Christina. However, an uprising forced the regent to resign. Espartero was appointed Regent, but internal problems in his government forced him to resign. After Espartero’s resignation, the Cortes advanced the age of majority of Isabella II, who was named Queen of Spain.
The Cánovas System
A new political system, conservative in nature but shaped by Cánovas del Castillo, was established. There were two main parties:
- The Conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, favored the Church and social and political immobility.
- The Liberals, represented by Sagasta, leaned towards more democratic, secular, and social reformism.
Both parties agreed on the essentials: constitutional monarchy and private property. Conservatives and Liberals alternated in power (the “Pacific Turn”), controlling Spanish politics for 40 years through vote manipulation and rural *caciquismo* (political bossism).
The Crisis of 1898
Spain’s inability to implement administrative reforms in Cuba led to a new revolution. Additionally, the Spanish administration hindered trade with the United States. The U.S. declared war on Spain following the sinking of an American ship in Havana harbor. Spain was defeated and lost its last colonies. The defeat provoked frustration and pessimism in Spanish society.
The Revolution of 1868
The deterioration of the Elizabethan political system and the economic crisis triggered a revolution against the monarchy. Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats joined in the Pact of Ostend. The movement, led by Prim and Serrano with the revolt of Brigadier Topete’s fleet in the Bay of Cádiz, was followed by riots in many cities. The government was defeated at Alcolea, and Queen Isabella II fled into exile. A provisional government, headed by Prim and Serrano, adopted a Constitution (1869) that recognized fundamental rights, including freedom of the press, association, and worship.