Spain in Crisis: 1898 and its Aftermath
The Crisis of 1898: Causes and Consequences
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries coincided with the regency of Maria Cristina, and during this time, Spain felt the effects of a triple crisis: social, economic, and political.
Economic Crisis
The economic crisis was caused by the inability of governments to undertake a reform of the trading system that would avoid the crisis of subsistence and supplies, which was exacerbated with the arrival of Caribbean refugees. This crisis manifested in increased inflation, currency depreciation (loss of value), and the decline of foreign trade.
Social Effects
Social effects included increased social conflict, expressed in the resurgence of armed struggle (such as the assassination of Cánovas in 1897) and food riots in 1898.
Political Crisis
The political crisis was due to foreign policy. During the years of German hegemony in Europe, the division of European states into opposing blocs, and colonial expansion in Africa and Asia, Cánovas opted for an isolationist foreign policy. This was to avoid the involvement of Spain in conflicts and unnecessary risks given the limited military capability of Spain. Spain was not able to keep their possessions in the Pacific, forcing the sale of the Carolines and Palau to Germany during the Cuban conflict, and no power helped Spain.
The Cuban Problem and the War with the United States
The Cuban problem and the war with the United States stemmed from the failure to implement the autonomy project due to opposition from bureaucrats, traders, and Spanish sugar interests, as well as the expansionist policies and economic interests of the U.S. on the island.
Thus, by 1875, an uprising led by José Martí, Máximo Gómez, and Antonio Maceo exploded in the eastern part of Cuba. This uprising had a popular character, with broad support from blacks and mulattos, and was violently repressed by the Spanish army under General Valeriano Weyler.
Given the impossibility of a military solution, the government proposed a series of policy measures such as autonomy for the island, the extension of universal suffrage for Cuban residents, and political amnesty (general forgiveness). However, these measures did not prevent the internationalization of the conflict.
The degree of U.S. involvement (support for independence guerrillas, pressure on Spain to settle the dispute, and attempts to purchase Cuba) made military confrontation almost inevitable.
The incident invoked as an excuse was the explosion of the battleship Maine in the bay of Havana in February 1898. The Americans blamed Spain without evidence, and a clever press campaign and bellicose anti-Spanish sentiment led to a declaration of war on Spain in April 1898.
The war was decided at sea. In May, the U.S. Navy destroyed the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay (Philippines) and Santiago de Cuba. In December, the peace agreement between the two countries was signed in Paris. By this treaty, Spain ceded sovereignty of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Cuba to the United States. Spanish colonial rule came to an end.
The Disaster of 1898
The loss of the war and the colonies, known as the Disaster of 1898, had a significant impact, including:
- Resentment of the military towards the political class, as they felt that they had been used and were blamed for the defeat.
- Development of an antimilitarist popular movement, as recruitment affected the lower classes without the resources to redeem entry into military service.
- Design of a new Spanish government’s foreign policy, focused on safeguarding their interests in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of Africa.
- Emergence of Regenerationism, an intellectual movement critical of the Restoration system, which favored the regeneration of Spain.
Regenerationism
The leading figure of Regenerationism was Joaquin Costa, author of Oligarchy and Caciquismo (1901). He denounced the country’s backwardness in all fields and defended the need to turn Spain into a modern and powerful nation. To achieve this, deep economic, educational, and political reforms were required. This experience led to improvements at all levels. To achieve all this, it was necessary to end the chieftaincy and distortion in democracy, apart from needing a provisional dictatorship that was able to implement these reforms.
In regard to intellectual and literary Regenerationism, represented by Angel Ganivet, Miguel de Unamuno, and Ramiro de Maeztu, they expressed their existential pessimism and irrationality, reflecting on the deep decline into which Spain had sunk.