Spain: From Crisis to Dictatorship (1910-1923)
The Crisis of 1917
Amidst international events and the outbreak of World War I, the conservative government of Eduardo Dato remained neutral. Three major movements converged with the goal of overthrowing the government:
- Military members
- Workers
- Politicians
The Military Movement
A vindictive military movement emerged, unhappy with the privileges of officers serving in Morocco. Juntas demanded improvements, causing the fall of the Liberal government of Garcia Prieto and the rise of the conservative Eduardo Dato. The government succumbed to military pressure and signed the Army Act (1918).
The Political Movement
In February 1917, a group of Catalan and reformist deputies and senators formed the Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona to promote fundamental political reform. The Assembly, with strong popular support, demanded a change of government and the convening of the Constituent Cortes. The government neglected the reform petition, increasing mistrust within the army.
The Labor Movement
Social tensions had been growing since 1914 due to rising prices and an ineffective government. A general strike, both economic and political, called for profound government changes. The strike spread nationwide, met with harsh government repression. Strike committee members in Madrid, including Julián Besteiro and Francisco Largo Caballero, were arrested.
Consequences of the 1917 Crisis
The events of August 1917 demonstrated the unions’ mobilizing capacity. The threat to social order led to a shift in the juntista movement, with officers supporting repression and abandoning reform efforts. The crisis also led to Dato’s resignation and the formation of a coalition government including Catalans, but their demands were not met.
The Second Stage of the Reign (1917-1923)
The Colonial War in Morocco and the Disaster of Annual
This period saw the fragmentation of Conservative and Liberal parties and government instability. Following the 1917 crisis, attempts were made to form national consolidation governments. Unrest grew, and in 1912, Morocco became a Protectorate shared between France and Spain. This economically sensible endeavor was complicated by constant harassment from tribes fighting against the occupation.
A poorly planned action by General Fernández Silvestre, commander of Melilla, allowed the Riffian guerrilla leader Abd-el-Krim to attack the Annual position. The Spanish troops fled, resulting in the loss of 13,000 lives.
Successive governments failed to cope with the accumulating problems. On the night of September 12-13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, captain general of Catalonia, led a coup in Barcelona.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
Primo de Rivera’s coup followed Mussolini’s rise to power in Italy. In his manifesto, he invoked the salvation of the country and announced his intention to form a military dictatorship. The coup was supported by the army, the Church, the bourgeoisie, landowners, and those who desired to maintain the existing social order. Republicans, socialists, communists, and anarchists opposed the dictatorship. The king handed over power to the General, leading to a bloodless coup.
Work of the Directories
Primo de Rivera presided over two governments:
- The Military Directory (1923-25): The government consisted exclusively of generals, constitutional guarantees were suspended, and the army controlled the administration. The Spanish Patriotic Union, imitating Italian Fascism, was founded in 1924.
- The Civil Directory (1925-30): The idea of a transient civilian government was abandoned. Political action focused on developing working corporations to replace political parties, culminating in the creation of the Constituent National Assembly. The Civil Directory implemented a successful interventionist social and economic policy, thanks to a favorable international economic situation. The government focused on education policy for primary schools and industrial work.