Spain: Early 20th Century Turmoil & Transformation
Political Instability and Military Intervention
Militarism: The increasing influence of military power led to more authoritarian and intransigent positions, with the military attributing defeats to inefficiency and political corruption. They proposed a greater military presence and role in political life, culminating in the 1923 coup led by Primo de Rivera and the start of General Franco’s dictatorship in 1936.
Assembly of Parliamentarians (1917): This assembly demanded the formation of a provisional government to convene a Constituent Assembly to reform the political system.
Consultative National Assembly (1927): This assembly had a corporate nature, with members selected from large public institutions rather than elected by popular vote. Its work was restricted to a constitutional draft, which was paralyzed in 1928.
Regionalist and Nationalist Movements
Catalan Acció: This secessionist organization, led by Francesc Macià, emerged from the Regionalist League and Estat Català.
Economic Agreements: This system granted a degree of fiscal autonomy to the Basque provinces, under which they would pay an annually collected amount to the central government.
The Crisis of 1898 and its Aftermath
Paris Peace Agreement (1898): Under this treaty, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. Cuba achieved independence but remained under U.S. protection until the mid-20th century.
Battle of Cavite (1898): This naval battle demonstrated the superiority of the U.S. Navy over the Spanish fleet.
Barranco del Lobo (1909): Riffian forces inflicted a major defeat on Spanish troops in this battle.
Carlos VII: This Carlist candidate crossed the French border into exile, ending the Carlist war.
Crisis of 1898: While the war resulted in significant material losses, the economic crisis was less severe. Finance Minister Fernández Villaverde promoted reforms to increase tax revenue.
Political Crisis: The Restoration system survived, ensuring the continuity of the Turno. Some rulers attempted to apply the ideas of regenerationism, which also stimulated the growth of nationalist movements in the Basque Country and Catalonia. These movements highlighted the inability of dynastic party politics to renew and decentralize.
Moral and Ideological Crisis: The defeat had a significant psychological impact on the Spanish population and political class, shattering the myth of the Spanish Empire.
Regenerationism: Thinkers like Joaquín Costa denounced the perceived degeneration of Spanish society and advocated for regeneration based on improving rural conditions and raising educational and cultural levels.
Closed Box: Tax resistance, particularly in Catalonia, led to boycotts of tax collection.
Social and Economic Changes
Financial Bourgeoisie: This group, alongside large landowners, acquired significant rural estates to diversify their investments.
Agrarian Bourgeoisie: Large landowners experienced notable development in the Ebro Valley, Catalonia, and Levante.
Labor and Social Movements
National Confederation of Labor (CNT): This revolutionary union aimed to spread throughout Spain and stabilize anarchist unionism. It advocated for the independence of the proletariat, trade union unity, and the overthrow of capitalism.
La Canadiense (1919): A strike at this Barcelona-based electricity company caused a major disruption to local industry.
White Collar Workers: This growing middle class segment comprised employees in shops, banks, state offices, and professions like doctors, lawyers, and teachers.
Republican-Socialist Conjunction (1909): This political alliance achieved some success in the 1910 elections.
Reformist Party (1912): Founded by Melquíades Álvarez, this republican group never became a major force.
Traditionalist Communion (1931): With the arrival of the Republic, Carlists, fundamentalists, and traditionalists united under this banner.
Economic Development and Modernization
Carolines and Palau (1885): Germany attempted to occupy this Pacific archipelago, which had belonged to Spain since the 16th century.
CAMPSA (1927): This oil refining and distribution company was founded in response to the growth of vehicle use.
Military Directory: This military regime ruled until 1925, when Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship began incorporating civilian ministers.
Civil Directory: The second phase of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship maintained the authoritarian style of the regime.
Alhucemas Landing (1925): This successful landing in Morocco was conducted in collaboration with France.
Decree for the Protection of Domestic Industry: This decree provided state aid to companies unable to compete internationally.
Depression of the Peseta: The devaluation of the peseta improved the competitiveness of Spanish exports.
Key Figures and Events
Eduardo Dato: This Prime Minister declared Spanish neutrality in World War I. He was assassinated in 1921.
Municipal Statute (1924) and Provincial Statute (1925): Primo de Rivera introduced these measures to eliminate caciquismo (political bossism).
Estat Català (1926): This left-wing Catalan nationalist group, led by Francesc Macià, attempted an armed invasion from France.
Silver Age: Spanish culture flourished in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Hispano-Suiza: This pioneering car company, founded in 1904, specialized in luxury vehicles.
Hydrographic Confederation (1926): This initiative promoted irrigation and the efficient use of water resources.
Berenguer’s Error: This article by Ortega y Gasset criticized the appointment of Dámaso Berenguer as Prime Minister, foreshadowing the monarchy’s downfall.