Spain: Crisis of ’98 & Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Crisis of 1898
The Colonial Empire Overseas
The crisis began in Cuba in 1868 with autonomy movements and a popular uprising fighting for the abolition of slavery. The Ten Years’ War lasted until 1878, concluding with the Pact of Zanjón, which promised Cuba governmental reforms. However, the results were limited, achieving only the formal abolition of slavery.
By 1895, independence insurrections broke out again in Cuba and the Philippines. The U.S. began supplying arms and equipment to the Cuban rebels, driven by economic and geo-strategic military interests.
The Disaster of 1898
The explosion of the USS Maine, which killed 200 crew members, provided the pretext for the U.S. to declare war against Spain. The cause of the explosion remained unknown, but the U.S., without evidence, blamed the Spanish government. American newspapers fueled anti-Spanish sentiment, pushing for war.
The war was swift and decisive for the U.S. The Spanish navy, with its wooden-hulled vessels, was no match for the U.S. steel ships and long-range guns. Key naval battles occurred in Cavite and Santiago de Cuba Bay.
Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. Cuba became independent under U.S. protection. Spain retained the Marianas, Carolinas, and Palau. This marked the final chapter in the loss of the Spanish overseas empire. The government’s handling of the colonial issue was inadequate, failing to offer timely autonomic reforms.
Implications of the Crisis
In Spain, blame was widespread. Republicans criticized the Liberals for failing to avert war. The military felt deep frustration and distrust towards the ruling party. The Restoration system faltered under public disappointment, financial debts, and internal criticism.
This gave rise to the Regenerationist movement, a political and intellectual force advocating for change in governance. The crisis highlighted the need for:
- Improved living conditions
- Modernization of society and the economy
- Political system reform
- Recovery of lost prestige
The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship
Causes of the Coup
The coup and subsequent dictatorship stemmed from the failure of the parliamentary system, the Moroccan crisis following the Annual disaster, ineffective government, widespread public disorder, and escalating social conflicts and terrorist violence.
The coup aimed to:
- End the old parliamentary system
- Resolve the Moroccan problem
- Ensure public order
- Suppress anticlericalism and separatism
Ideological Approach
Primo de Rivera’s values were traditional and military. While not a fascist, he admired Mussolini. The coup was met with indifference or approval by Spanish society. Reactionary anarchists and communists attempted a failed general strike.
Political Approach
Initially presented as a temporary solution, the dictatorship evolved into a project for a new state. Three phases marked this attempt:
- Formation of the Patriotic Union, a single-party system
- Creation of the National Consultative Assembly, with a limited advisory role
- Drafting of a constitution in 1929, during the dictatorship’s decline
The dictatorship also persecuted Catalan nationalists.
Economic Approach
Primo de Rivera’s economic policy involved strong government intervention:
- Control of productive sectors
- Subsidies to national companies
- Strengthening of protectionist tariffs
- Increased public investments
- Creation of telephone and CAMPSA monopolies (the latter controlling oil)
Social Approach
Joint committees were established to resolve labor conflicts, avoiding social confrontation and strikes.
The End of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship failed to solve the country’s problems. Growing opposition, deteriorating relations between Primo de Rivera and King Alfonso XIII, renewed social unrest, financial difficulties, loss of army control, and the dictator’s illness led to his resignation in January 1930. He died two months later in Paris.