Spain: Crisis, Constitution, and Carlist Wars (1788-1875)
The Crisis of 1808 and the War of Independence (1788-1814)
Carlos IV and the French Revolution
The death of Carlos III in 1788 brought Carlos IV to the throne. The French Revolution, beginning in 1789, caused fear and paralyzed political reform in Spain. This led to the formation of an anti-French coalition in Europe (1793), with Spanish troops participating. Spain suffered defeats against France, and by 1799, power shifted to the Governing Junta, highlighting the weakness of the Spanish monarchy.
Godoy’s Rise and the Fontainebleau Treaty
In 1792, Manuel Godoy was appointed Prime Minister. Initially allying with France, Godoy later enacted reforms including disentailment (selling church lands), reducing the Inquisition’s influence, and supporting political associations. However, the alliance with France led to defeat at Trafalgar (1805). In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed French troops to invade Portugal, dividing land between Godoy, Napoleon, and the Spanish monarchs.
Mutiny of Aranjuez and Abdications
The Mutiny of Aranjuez in March 1808, involving the clergy, nobility, and the Prince of Asturias (future Fernando VII), forced Carlos IV’s abdication. Napoleon exploited the situation, leading to the Bayonne abdications and the installation of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. A new constitution was drafted, but never implemented. The Spanish people resisted French rule, sparking the War of Independence.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812
Formation of the Cortes
With the French advance, the Central Junta fled to Cádiz and convened the Cortes. The goal was to let the nation decide its own political organization. The Cortes opened in September 1810.
The Constitution of 1812 (“La Pepa”)
Approved on March 19, 1812, the Constitution of 1812 established national sovereignty, individual liberties (press, religion, property), and a constitutional monarchy with limited powers for the king. It also introduced the separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial). The legislature (Cortes) was unicameral, elected by indirect male suffrage. The executive power resided with the monarch, who chose ministers needing the Cortes’ confidence. The judiciary was independent.
Work of the Cortes
The Cortes abolished feudalism, the Inquisition, and guilds, promoting a capitalist system.
The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
Absolute Rule (1814-1820)
Returning from exile in 1814, Fernando VII rejected the 1812 Constitution and restored absolutism. Liberals were persecuted. The international environment, shaped by the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance, favored absolutist regimes.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The 1820 uprising led by Rafael del Riego forced Fernando VII to accept the 1812 Constitution. A liberal government implemented reforms, including reducing tithes and selling monastic lands. However, the king conspired against the government and sought international support.
Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The Holy Alliance intervened, sending the “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis” to restore absolutism. Fernando VII unleashed a wave of repression. Economic woes continued, exacerbated by the loss of American colonies. Dynastic conflict arose due to the Salic Law, which prevented female inheritance. Fernando VII later abolished the Salic Law, paving the way for his daughter Isabel to inherit the throne.
Spanish American Independence
Background
The 18th century saw economic prosperity in Spanish America, but Creole elites resented Spanish control over trade and high taxes. Inspired by the American Revolution and supported by the British, they sought independence.
Independence Movements
Opposition to Joseph Bonaparte in 1808 led to the formation of juntas loyal to Fernando VII. These juntas eventually declared independence. Key figures included José de San Martín in Argentina, Simón Bolívar in Gran Colombia, and Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos in Mexico. By the 1820s, most of Spanish America had achieved independence.
Opposition to the Liberal System and the Carlist Wars (1833-1840)
The First Carlist War
Fernando VII’s death in 1833 triggered the First Carlist War. The Carlists, supporting Carlos María Isidro (Fernando’s brother), represented absolutism. The Isabelinos, supporting Isabel II and her regent Maria Cristina, were mostly moderate liberals. The war was fought mainly in the Basque Country, Navarre, and Catalonia.
The Foral Question
The Convention of Vergara (1839) ended the war, with the Liberals recognizing some Basque and Navarrese fueros (regional privileges). However, these fueros were later curtailed.
The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)
Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840)
Maria Cristina initially relied on moderate liberals. The Royal Statute of 1834, a limited constitution, was deemed insufficient by progressives, leading to unrest. The progressive Mendizábal government disentailed church property, further alienating conservatives.
Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
General Espartero, a progressive, became regent in 1840. His free trade policies caused problems for Catalan textile industry, leading to his downfall.
Moderate Decade (1843-1854)
The moderates returned to power, enacting the Constitution of 1845, which reinforced the crown’s authority and limited suffrage. They signed the Concordat of 1851 with the Vatican, restoring some Church privileges.
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Discontent with the moderates led to the Vicalvarada uprising and the brief return of progressives, who implemented the Madoz Disentailment.
Liberal Union and Narváez (1856-1868)
The Liberal Union, led by O’Donnell, pursued an aggressive foreign policy. Narváez’s later government failed to address popular demands, leading to growing opposition and the eventual overthrow of Isabel II in 1868.
Economic and Social Change (1833-1875)
Economic Transformations
Disentailment and railway construction fueled economic change. The Catalan textile industry flourished, while mining and metallurgy developed. However, agriculture remained largely traditional.
Social Structure
A new class structure emerged, with a wealthy bourgeoisie alongside a growing industrial proletariat. The peasantry remained the largest group.
The Workers’ Movement
Harsh working conditions led to the rise of the workers’ movement. The International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) established a presence in Spain, with both anarchist and Marxist influences.