Spain and the Disaster of ’98: Loss of Empire
The End of an Era: Spain in 1898
A Europe at Peace, Spain Isolated
While Europe enjoyed a period of peace known as the Great Paz, Germany, under Chancellor Bismarck’s leadership and through strategic alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, held a prominent position on the continent. France navigated the Third Republic, and Great Britain basked in the glory of the Victorian era. Meanwhile, European powers focused on the conquest of Africa and Asia. The United States, having overcome its Civil War, turned its attention to the remnants of the Spanish empire: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Spain, failing to fully integrate into Bismarck’s system of alliances, found itself isolated and unable to withstand the rising tide of American imperialism.
The Crisis of ’98
Spain faced a profound crisis in 1898, stemming from uprisings in its colonies. In Cuba, the “Grito de Baire” in 1895 ignited a rebellion that ultimately led to the island’s independence in 1898. Similar movements for emancipation, led by figures like José Rizal, arose in the Philippines in 1896.
Causes of the Crisis
- Spain’s failure to honor the agreements of the 1878 Zanjón pact led to discontent among Cuban Creoles.
- Creoles felt marginalized by Spain’s economic backwardness compared to other industrial powers, which hindered the island’s economic growth.
- Spain’s mishandling of the Cuban situation, including the rejection of an autonomy plan proposed by Antonio Maura in 1893, further fueled tensions.
- A belated grant of autonomy in 1895 proved too little, too late, and was not accepted by the Cubans, leading to further uprisings.
- Growing patriotic sentiment in both Cuba and the Philippines, supported by U.S. interests, intensified the calls for independence.
The Cuban Uprising and the Spanish-American War
The Cuban uprising, led by José Martí in the eastern part of the island, prompted a response from Spain. Initially, Cánovas attempted reconciliation by sending General Martínez Campos to negotiate, but his failure led to the appointment of Valeriano Weyler in 1896. Weyler’s harsh tactics, including the creation of “reconcentration camps,” sparked protests from the U.S. The U.S. Senate recommended recognizing the state of war in Cuba and offered to mediate, calling for greater Cuban autonomy. Cánovas rejected the proposal and drafted a memorandum granting limited freedoms and autonomy to a pacified Cuba. However, his assassination in 1897 prevented its implementation.
The new U.S. president, William McKinley, protested Weyler’s methods and demanded the pacification of Cuba. He even attempted to purchase the island for $300 million, but Spain refused. The sinking of the USS Maine on February 15, 1898, provided the pretext for war. The U.S. declared war on Spain, demanding Cuban independence.
The War and Its Aftermath
The Spanish-American War unfolded in two theaters: the Pacific and the Atlantic. In the Pacific, the U.S. fleet swiftly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Following the surrender of Cavite, the Philippines revolted under Emilio Aguinaldo. In the Atlantic, the Spanish fleet, blockaded in Santiago de Cuba, was destroyed by the U.S. Navy. U.S. troops landed in Cuba, capturing Caney and San Juan Hill. Shortly after, the Americans entered Santiago and Puerto Rico. By December 1898, the war was over.
The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, formalized Spain’s defeat. Spain recognized Cuban independence and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. The remaining possessions were sold to Germany the following year. With the Treaty of Paris, Spain’s overseas empire came to an end.
The Impact of ’98
The Disaster of ’98 had a profound impact on Spanish consciousness. The Restoration system was thrown into crisis, and calls for regeneration in society, education, and the economy emerged. Regenerationism became a dominant theme in Spanish intellectual and political life, as the nation grappled with the consequences of its defeat and sought a path to modernization.
The Legacy of Loss
The crisis of ’98 marked a turning point in Spanish history, forcing the nation to confront its decline and embark on a path of reform and renewal.