Socrates: Athenian Philosopher’s Life, Teachings, and Enduring Impact
Socrates: Life, Philosophy, and Enduring Legacy
Socrates’ Early Life and Context
Birth, Environment, and Family Influence
Socrates was born in Athens around 470 BC and died in 399 BC. He lived in an environment marked by relativism and skepticism. His mother was a midwife, an influence that later shaped his philosophical method.
Socio-Political Landscape of Athens
The socio-political climate of Athens during his lifetime was tumultuous, characterized by the Peloponnesian War and significant political shifts. This included the period of democracy (431-404 BC), the brief rule of the Thirty Tyrants (404-403 BC), and the subsequent return to democracy.
Socrates’ Unique Approach to Philosophy
Dialogue Over Speeches: The Socratic Method
Unlike the Sophists, Socrates engaged in dialogue rather than delivering speeches. He posed questions, particularly to the Sophists, challenging their assumptions and leading them to self-contradiction.
The “Gadfly” of Athens
Socrates was famously called the “gadfly” of Athens because he constantly annoyed and challenged the established norms and beliefs of his fellow citizens. His persistent questioning aimed to stimulate critical thought and expose intellectual complacency. It is thanks to the writings of Plato and Xenophon that his philosophy and life are preserved.
Trial, Conviction, and Death of Socrates
Charges of Impiety and Corrupting Youth
In 399 BC, Socrates was charged with two main offenses:
- Impiety: He was accused of not accepting the traditional gods of the city but instead believing in a daimon (a divine sign or inner voice), which his accusers interpreted as a new deity. Socrates, however, believed this was more akin to a conscience, a belief in a god above all other gods.
- Corrupting the Youth: He was accused of corrupting the young people who followed him. Socrates did not charge for his teachings; he only taught them to think critically. This charge was politically motivated, especially considering that two of his students, Critias and Alcibiades, were prominent figures during the rule of the Thirty Tyrants.
Socrates’ Political Views and Arrest
Socrates did not believe in democracy. Upon the return to democracy, he was arrested because he was perceived as a ringleader of a group opposed to democratic principles.
Condemnation and Acceptance of Fate
Despite the charges, Socrates was condemned to death by drinking hemlock. He refused to flee, choosing instead to abide by the laws of Athens, even though he considered his sentence an injustice. His decision to accept his fate, as described in Plato’s Phaedo, further enhanced his prestige and philosophical legacy.
Core Philosophical Principles
The Pursuit of Self-Knowledge: “Know Thyself”
Initially instructed in natural philosophy and by the Sophists, Socrates came to believe that the external world was largely unknowable. He therefore dedicated himself to the knowledge of one’s own soul, inspired by the Delphic maxim: “Know Thyself.”
Acknowledging Ignorance: “I Know That I Know Nothing”
Another famous Socratic dictum is “I know that I know nothing.” This statement highlights his profound humility and is often interpreted as the reason he was considered the wisest man on Earth: he recognized his own ignorance, unlike the Sophists who claimed to know everything.
Socrates vs. The Sophists: Key Differences
The fundamental differences between Socrates and the Sophists can be summarized as follows:
- Method:
- Sophists: Delivered speeches, focused on rhetoric and persuasion for success in social and political life.
- Socrates: Engaged in dialogue, focused on truth and virtue through questioning.
- Goals:
- Sophists: Promulgated success, often for personal gain.
- Socrates: Enacted virtue, focused on inner moral development.
- Remuneration:
- Sophists: Charged fees for their teachings.
- Socrates: Did not charge, considering his pursuit a shared endeavor among peers.
- Origin:
- Sophists: Often foreigners (metics) in Athens.
- Socrates: An Athenian citizen.
The Socratic Method in Detail
Seeking Universal Definitions and Principles
Socrates believed that through precise definitions, one could arrive at universal principles and concepts that were universally valid, directly contradicting the Sophists’ relativism.
Inductive Argumentation and Universal Definition
Socrates’ method involved inductive argumentation, moving from concrete examples to reach a universal conclusion or definition. This process aimed to establish universally valid concepts, particularly concerning justice and other virtues.
Maieutics: The Art of Intellectual Midwifery
Socrates did not simply impart his own opinions. Instead, he exposed and “delivered” the knowledge already present within others, a process he called Maieutics (from his mother’s profession, obstetrics). This involved assisting others in “giving birth” to their own ideas and understanding.
Phases of Socratic Dialogue
The Socratic dialogue typically unfolded in distinct phases:
- Socratic Irony: Socrates would feign ignorance, encouraging his interlocutor to confidently state their beliefs.
- Elenchus (Dialogue/Discussion): Through a series of questions and answers, Socrates would lead the interlocutor to discover contradictions in their own statements, thereby revealing the inadequacy of their initial definition or belief.
- Definition/Conclusion: The process aimed to reach a more precise definition or conclusion, which could then be used to overcome relativism.
Positive and Negative Inductive Practices
Socrates’ inductive practices had two aspects:
- Positive Induction: Using examples to help formulate and consider a definition.
- Negative Induction: Demonstrating the inadequacy of a definition by showing instances where it did not apply.
Socratic Moral Intellectualism
Virtue, Knowledge, and Objective Values
Socrates sought universal definitions for moral concepts, directly combating the moral relativism of the Sophists. He believed that virtues were objective, arguing that if human nature is constant, then moral values must also be objective. In the moral sphere, he posited that virtue is a virtuous action that directly aligns with the true value of humanity.
The Nature of Virtue (Arete)
For Socrates, virtue (arete) was a form of knowledge or technical skill that could be learned. He identified three aspects of acquiring virtue:
- Innate ability
- Learning
- Practice
He also linked virtue directly to happiness, suggesting that a virtuous life leads to true well-being.
Socrates’ Political Philosophy and Legacy
Critique of Athenian Democracy
As a consequence of his views, Socrates did not fully accept Athenian democracy, believing that it presupposed a level of political virtue (arete) that was often absent. He found it absurd that important political decisions were made by popular vote without sufficient knowledge or expertise.
Upholding the Law and Care of the Soul
Despite his critique of democracy, Socrates profoundly respected the law. His sentence, though unfair, was legal, and he chose to abide by it. He famously argued that it is better to suffer injustice than to commit it, for committing injustice harms one’s own soul, while suffering it does not. For Socrates, the care of one’s soul was the most important pursuit.