Sociological Perspectives on Technology and Identity
Technology, Society, and Identity Evolution
Technology, society, and identity are deeply interlinked, and each one shapes and transforms the others. Technological change reflects the transition from agrarian to industrial societies, a shift marked by inventions and discoveries that triggered major revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.
Technological developments do not occur in isolation. Sociologists argue that technology is deeply embedded in social, cultural, and institutional structures, rather than being a tool external to society. For example, the invention of the printing press increased literacy, spread scientific knowledge, and facilitated the Protestant Reformation, demonstrating how technology directly shapes culture and social organization.
From Traditional to Modern Societies
Sociological theory contrasts Traditional societies (Gemeinschaft) with Modern societies (Gesellschaft):
- Traditional societies: Small, rural, slow-changing, oriented to the past, and based on extended families and informal controls.
- Modern societies: Urban, rapidly changing, specialized, future-oriented, and regulated by formal institutions.
In today’s digital world, the speed and depth of technological change have intensified. Technologies like Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), mass media, algorithms, and digital platforms create new forms of identity and social behavior. The Facebook data controversy illustrates how technology shapes opinions, politics, and identity, revealing how technological systems act as powerful social agents influencing public behavior beyond their original purpose.
Sociological Perspectives: Marx, Weber, and Veblen
Classical sociologists provided foundational insights into how technology shapes work, institutions, and society.
Karl Marx: Machines and Capitalism
Marx placed machines at the center of his analysis of capitalism. He argued that industrial technologies enable exploitation by intensifying labor, lengthening work hours, and displacing workers. While machines reorganize work to benefit capital, Marx also believed in the emancipatory potential of technology; industrial tools could be used for humane, collective production if society were reorganized.
Max Weber: Rationalization and Profit
Weber emphasized that technological development is often driven by economic interests, especially the pursuit of profit. He linked technology to the process of rationalization, where efficiency, calculability, and control guide social organization. For example, assembly lines became dominant because they maximized profit, not because they were the most humane form of labor.
Thorstein Veblen: Technology as Cultural Legacy
Veblen contributed significantly to the sociology of technology through several key points:
- He rejected technological determinism, arguing that institutions and vested interests often restrict development.
- Technology is a shared cultural legacy, built collectively across generations.
- Technology shapes human thinking styles, encouraging practicality, logic, and evidence—the “machine process” mindset.
- He introduced cultural lag, where institutions change more slowly than technologies, creating social friction.
The Precariat in the Digital Age
The precariat is an emerging social class characterized by insecure, unstable, and irregular forms of work. The term “precarity” gained prominence in the 1980s following labor reforms that reduced welfare and increased temporary employment.
Digital Society and Globalisation
Digital platforms—such as ride-sharing apps, delivery services, and gig-based work—intensify precarity. The digital economy relies on flexibility, limited job security, and algorithmic control. This creates a global class of workers lacking long-term stability or occupational identity. Furthermore, Automation and AI threaten traditional employment, deepening economic insecurity.
Major Features of the Precariat
- Lack of stable employment: Dependence on short-term, intermittent, or gig work.
- Absence of occupational identity: No belonging to established professional communities or traditions.
- No collective voice: A lack of strong labor unions or bargaining power.
- Economic vulnerability: Unpredictable income and limited upward mobility.
- Fragmented class identity: No shared culture or stable lifestyle to unify the group.
Guy Standing describes the precariat as a “dangerous class-in-the-making,” reflecting social fragmentation in the era of digital capitalism.
AI, Surveillance, and Contemporary Identity
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is woven into daily life via algorithms, facial recognition, and recommendation systems, influencing behavior and governance.
The Statistical Individual and Data Doubles
Machine learning systems analyze massive datasets to predict behavior. AI classifies people into reference classes based on correlated data points rather than personal stories. The “you” inside the algorithm is a statistical individual—a probability-based profile. This creates a gap between self-understanding and algorithmic definition, where data doubles are used for automated decision-making.
Liquid and Panoptic Surveillance
- Liquid Surveillance: David Lyon describes the free flow of data between corporations and governments, where boundaries of monitoring are increasingly blurred.
- Panoptic Surveillance: Individuals internalize surveillance, modifying their behavior because they believe they are being watched (the CCTV effect).
- Ban-optic Surveillance: Data is used to exclude individuals from services or opportunities based on race, class, or risk categories.
- Surveillant Assemblage: A pervasive, mobile system gathering data from phones, apps, and biometrics, used globally for monitoring.
These concepts demonstrate how AI reshapes privacy, social power structures, and identity, potentially deepening inequalities and political control.