Society & Economy in Spain’s Restoration (1875-1931)
1. Demographic Growth and Migration in Spain’s Restoration
Throughout the 19th century, Spain’s population was characterized by:
1.1 Slow Population Growth
Compared to other European countries, Spain’s population grew at a slower pace, failing to double in a century. This moderate growth reflected Spain’s economic lag compared to industrialized European nations.
1.2 Persistence of Traditional Demographic Patterns
Until the early 20th century, Spain maintained high mortality and birth rates, coupled with a high infant mortality rate. This was largely due to economic backwardness, including poor agricultural productivity, inadequate sanitation, and insufficient transportation. Periodic subsistence crises, hunger, and diseases further contributed to the high mortality rate.
1.3 Migration Movements
Before 1880, a significant migration flow headed towards North Africa (Algeria). However, between 1882 and 1899, a substantial emigration wave to America emerged, peaking between 1900 and 1914. This was driven by economic pressures and relaxed emigration laws.
Furthermore, a modest rural-to-urban migration contributed to the growth of major urban centers like Barcelona and Madrid. However, Spain remained largely rural in 1914, with Catalonia as a notable exception, exhibiting a higher urbanization rate comparable to more developed countries.
2. Economic Structures During the Restoration
2.1 The Agrarian Problem
Spain’s agricultural backwardness was significantly influenced by land ownership distribution. Large estate owners in regions like Castile, Extremadura, and Andalusia showed limited interest in efficient cultivation, leading to subsistence living conditions for the majority of the population.
Conversely, in the north and Galicia Submeseta, small farm sizes and poor land quality hindered savings and forced emigration, preventing improvements in agricultural efficiency and competitiveness.
High tariff protection, implemented since 1891, solidified cereal as the primary crop, despite its higher price compared to other countries. While other crops like vineyards, olives, and citrus experienced more dynamic growth, these changes were insufficient to propel Spain towards an industrialized society.
2.2 Exploitation of Mineral Resources
Between 1874 and 1914, Spain witnessed extensive exploitation of its mineral resources, yet with limited economic impact. Coal and iron ore were the two most important mining activities during this period.
The increase in coal production was heavily reliant on public sector protection. In contrast, the expansion of iron mining, coupled with tariff exploitation, contributed to the industrialization of the Basque Country.
Three factors explain the mining expansion: rising demand, technological advancements that reduced extraction costs, and new mining legislation that liberalized the exploitation of deposits. Consequently, the number of concessions surged, with metal and mineral sales accounting for nearly a third of total exports.
2.2.1 Coal Mining
Asturias was the primary coal mining region. While the poor quality of the coal was offset by high tariffs, the liberalization of the sector in 1869 exposed its lack of competitiveness. Subsequent production increases were heavily dependent on state aid.
2.2.2 Iron Mining
The Bessemer process significantly boosted demand for Spanish iron ore, particularly the phosphorus-free variety found in the Basque Country. Due to weak domestic demand, the majority of the ore was exported, making Spain the leading iron exporter in Europe.