Social Varieties of Language and the Generation of ’98

Posted on Feb 14, 2025 in English Studies

Social Varieties of Language: Cultivated, Colloquial, and Vulgar

This document explores the different social varieties of language, focusing on the characteristics of cultivated, colloquial, and vulgar registers. It also examines the literary movements of Modernism and the Generation of ’98.

Cultivated Language

The cultivated level is the most stable and rich form of language, used to express complex ideas in depth. Key features include:

  • Phonetics and Phonology: Careful pronunciation, avoiding the elision of intervocalic or final ‘d’ sounds.
  • Morphosyntax: Rigorous syntactic constructions.
  • Lexicon: The highest respect for others is demonstrated through word choice.

It is typically spoken by educated individuals.

Popular or Colloquial Language

This register is characterized by expressions reflecting feelings and emotions. It includes:

  • Personal management of the elements that form phrases.
  • Use of rhetorical questions, where the speaker asks themselves or the listener without expecting a response.
  • Use of irony, employing words to express the opposite meaning.
  • Use of seemingly unnecessary elements for affective expression.
  • Use of unfinished sentences, assuming shared knowledge among speakers.
  • Lack of adjectives and adverbs.
  • Inaccuracies due to the frequent use of words whose purpose is simply to continue the conversation.
  • Short sentences.
  • Simple words, idioms, and proverbs.
  • Use of the infinitive instead of the imperative.

Vulgar Language

This register is spoken by people with limited formal education and who are not typically able to shift registers. Characteristics include:

  • Phonetics: Changes between b and g, d and r.
  • Morphology: Gender changes, errors with irregular verbs, alteration of personal pronouns, and incorrect use of the verb “haber” (to have) before “que” (that).
  • Vocabulary: Very limited and includes confused words.

Modernism and the Generation of ’98

Historical and Social Context

In 1898, Spain lost its colonies, causing a national decline. The political and social situation remained largely unchanged. This quarter-century saw social conflicts such as the Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909) and the General Strike of 1917. The First World War exacerbated social class differences.

Modernism

In the late 19th century, currents opposed to realism proliferated in America and Europe. Modernism is the term designating a stream of artistic and literary renewal, representing a break with the prevailing aesthetic. It draws on two main influences:

  • Parnassianism: The theme is “art for art’s sake,” concerned solely with beauty.
  • Symbolism: Defends the idea of a deeper reality hidden behind appearances.

Its origin is often linked to the publication of Azul (Blue) by Rubén Darío, the most significant figure of the movement. Other important Modernist writers include Manuel Machado and Francisco Villaespesa.

Characteristics of Modernism:

  • Rejection of everyday life.
  • Pursuit of formal perfection.
  • Search for rhythm and harmony in words.
  • Lexical renewal.
  • Themes focus on the external world and the poet’s inner life.

Generation of ’98

This term designates a group of writers deeply affected by the moral, social, and political crisis in Spain. In 1901, Pío Baroja, Azorín, and Ramiro de Maeztu formed the “Group of Three.” The term “Generation of ’98” was coined in 1913.

Characteristics:

  • The authors maintained a friendship and opposed the Restoration in Spain.
  • They shared a love for Castile, which became a symbol of the nation.
  • They rejected realism, and their language was closer to that of the street.
  • Pessimism and a critical attitude led them to sympathize with Romantics like José de Larra and share theses with the Regenerationist Joaquín Costa.
  • Themes revolved around the land and history of Spain.
  • Their language is simple, in contrast to Modernism.

Antonio Machado (1875-1939)

Antonio Machado participated in both the Modernist movement and the Generation of ’98. His work initially shows the principal features of Modernism, eventually evolving towards simplicity of language. His poems express feelings through symbols. His best-known works include: Campos de Castilla (Fields of Castile), Otros Poemas (Other Poems), and Soledades, Galerías (Solitudes, Galleries).