Second Language Acquisition Stages: Syntax and Competition Model Principles
Six Stages of Second Language Syntactic Development
These stages illustrate the progression of processing capacity required for increasingly complex syntactic operations:
Stage 1: Canonical Order (SVO)
Learners at this stage primarily produce simple sentences with the basic Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order.
Processing Capacity
Learners can process and produce single constituents in their canonical order. They have not yet developed the processing mechanisms for more complex rearrangements.
Stage 2: Adverb Preposing
Learners now place the adverb in sentence-initial position but maintain the SVO order (no verb-subject inversion yet).
Processing Capacity
Learners are developing the ability to move a single constituent (the adverb) to a non-canonical position. This requires a slightly more complex processing operation.
Stage 3: Particle Shift
Learners can separate a verbal particle (up, on, out, etc.) from the verb when a direct object pronoun follows.
Processing Capacity
This stage involves the processing of phrasal verbs and the ability to place a pronoun object between the verb and the particle. This requires the learner to hold and manipulate more elements in their working memory.
Stage 4: Do-Support in Questions and Negation
Learners acquire the use of “do” as a dummy auxiliary in questions and negative sentences when there is no other auxiliary verb.
Processing Capacity
This stage involves understanding and applying the grammatical rule of do-support, which requires the learner to analyze the verb form and insert “do” when necessary.
Stage 5: Subject-Auxiliary Inversion (Yes/No Questions)
Learners can invert the subject and the auxiliary verb to form yes/no questions.
Processing Capacity
This requires the learner to identify the auxiliary verb and move it to a position before the subject. This involves a more complex syntactic operation than simply preposing an adverb.
Stage 6: Advanced Wh-Fronting and Inversion
Learners can correctly form wh-questions with subject-auxiliary inversion.
Processing Capacity
This involves fronting the wh-word and then applying subject-auxiliary inversion.
The Competition Model: Features and Commitments
Basic Features of the Competition Model
The Competition Model posits that language acquisition is driven by cognitive processing and input reliability:
- Incremental Learning: Language acquisition progresses step by step, building on previous knowledge. What is learned in early stages influences later development.
- Form-Function Mapping: Every word or grammatical feature has both a form (its physical shape, like sounds or written letters) and a function (its meaning or communicative role). Learning involves connecting forms to functions correctly.
- Cue-Driven Processing: The brain uses linguistic cues (such as word order, agreement markers, and animacy) to identify meaning. Stronger cues—those that consistently lead to correct interpretations—become dominant in a learner’s language.
- Competition in Learning: Different forms compete for representation. The more frequently a form is encountered and the more reliable it is, the more likely it will be adopted by the learner.
- Parallel Distributed Processing: Language processing does not happen in a strict linear sequence; instead, multiple cognitive processes occur at the same time, influencing how information is stored and retrieved.
- Non-Modular Approach: Unlike theories that separate language learning from other types of learning, the Competition Model sees Second Language Acquisition (SLA) as part of general cognitive processing, meaning the brain uses the same mechanisms for language as it does for other learning.
Theoretical Commitments of the Competition Model
The model aligns with several important theoretical perspectives in language learning and cognitive science:
Lexical Functionalism
Language is fundamentally functional, meaning forms exist to fulfill communicative needs. Forms (words, sounds, word order) are external features, while functions are the meanings behind them.
Connectionism
Language learning happens through strengthening connections between different linguistic elements. The brain builds networks of meaning, strengthening links as patterns are repeated. Learning is data-driven, and stronger connections emerge from consistent input.
Input-Driven Learning
Exposure to language input is essential; learning does not rely on innate grammatical structures. Cue validity is central—learners pick up reliable cues from input, using them to determine how language works. More frequent and reliable forms are learned earlier and more successfully.
Processing Capacity Constraints
Working memory and cognitive processing limits shape language acquisition. Language use in real-time is affected by memory capacity and the ability to process multiple cues simultaneously.