Scientific Methods, Symbols, and Human Communication
Empirical sciences study observable facts and are testable through experience (via the senses). These include natural sciences (e.g., physical chemistry and ecology) and social sciences (e.g., sociology, psychology, anthropology, and history). They are part of the hypothetico-deductive method.
Formal sciences study the human mind and prove their claims through logical and coherent reasoning. Mathematics and logic are examples, forming part of the deductive method.
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The hypothetico-deductive scientific method involves moving from hypothetical individual cases to general conclusions (induction) and from deductive general conclusions to individual cases.
Steps of the Scientific Method
- Observe the facts.
- Formulate a hypothesis from the observed facts.
- Generalize the hypothesis (induction).
- Draw logical conclusions or predictions from the hypothesis (deduction).
- Check through experience (via the senses) if the hypothesis is verified.
- If verified, establish a scientific law.
Understanding Symbolic Capacity
Symbolic capacity is key to adapting to the environment. It allows us to see beyond (think in the abstract) what nature imposes on us. Because of it, we can create language, art, myth, religion, and science. In general, we can implement everything within a term we might call culture. Humans seek transcendence through symbols, and we can share knowledge and experiences through communication.
The Nature of Symbols
A symbol is an element that is replaceable by something that is partially or temporarily removed. Symbols are different from the element they represent (e.g., love-heart, country-flag, peace-dove). They are artificially created or conventional, and their individual meanings are transmitted by the learner, allowing us to express ourselves.
Language and Human Communication
Language is an expression that goes beyond symbolic capacity. Thanks to language, we can:
- Appoint and give meaning to everything (what exists and what does not).
- Create or reproduce shared knowledge, allowing the progressive accumulation of knowledge.
To survive and evolve, any animal needs to contact its physical environment and other individuals of its species. Therefore, communication is indispensable because it allows us to make valid points of reference for all. Communication is defined as the process by which a sender sends a message to a receiver, built with a common code in a particular context.
Distinguishing Human and Animal Communication
Human language and animal communication have features that differentiate them:
- Animal communication has a single articulation and is formed by a series of limited units that have fixed meanings and cannot be combined.
- Human communication is doubly articulated. It is formed by a limited number of base units that, when combined, result in an unlimited number of messages.
Human language is symbolic, constituted by signs. A sign has two parts:
- Signified: The meaning we want to convey.
- Signifier: What we use to express that meaning.
Animals are genetically conditioned; their signals are innate, as is animal communication. In the symbolic language of humans, there is no natural relationship between the signifier and the signified. Instead, there is an understanding that ensures the richness of human language in speech and allows us to:
- Develop theoretical and abstract representations.
- Represent the vision of reality.
- Create new words and meanings.
- Invent imaginary realities.