Scientific Methods and the Vienna Circle
Methods of Science
Method means “road,” and scientific method means “the road from experience to the formulation of a law or theory.”
Induction
Induction is the inference that we can go from specific cases to all cases. This generalization is unreliable, weak, and risky because a single case that doesn’t fit the theory can debunk it. Induction relies on metaphysical assumptions that are not empirically provable. While widespread, induction is irrelevant for formulating relevant scientific knowledge; it can hardly establish a law or theory.
Abduction
Abduction is the step leading from observed facts to a law, theory, or the best possible application of the facts. There are two types:
- Abduction that provides a new law or theory.
- Abduction that uses existing laws or theories to explain a fact.
Abduction is more psychological than logical—a creative moment generating something new, for which there are no learnable rules. While not mechanical, there is practical guidance:
- Turn the normal into the exceptional (to discover new theories).
- Turn the exceptional into the normal (to explain seemingly new phenomena using known theories).
Deduction
Deduction is the inference (reasoning) that leads from the general to the particular—the inverse of induction. It’s a procedure found in everyday life, not exclusively in science. Deduction is reliable if the starting generalization is logically sound, but it may not be materially true. Deduction is only involved when there is explicit knowledge, like that contained in the starting premise. It involves analysis and doesn’t aim to formulate new knowledge.
The Hypothetical-Deductive Method
This method synthesizes abduction and deduction. Based on data, with multiple interpretations, we arrive at axioms or hypotheses that attempt to explain the studied phenomenon through abduction—a series of non-logical, psychological procedures characteristic of scientific work. Once the explanatory axioms are obtained, the consequences associated with each hypothesis are logically deduced. After considering all consequences, the scientist’s mind connects them with experience, correlating predictions with observations to determine their truth or falsity. Intriguingly, the link between experience and theory leads to a dilemma in the theory of science. Philosophers argue that theories create their own facts, as objectivity is virtually nonexistent, and empirical data is adapted to fit our theories. This leads to the nonexistence of the empirically neutral.
Modeling
Different beliefs result from the fragmented study of the world. Science divides and specializes due to the world’s complexity. A model is an object, concept, or set of relations used to represent and study a simplified version of empirical reality. Modeling simplifies reality and facilitates research.
- Analog Model: Used when direct access to the represented reality is possible. It proceeds by similarity (analogy) to the presented reality, maintaining essential properties.
- Iconic Model: A variety of analog model, representing large-scale objects for study.
- Intuitive Model: Represents realities that are difficult or impossible to recreate, often using the mind for assistance.
- Mathematical Model: Translates a part of reality into precise and synthetic formal language (mathematics). According to structural design, any theory is a mathematical model. They are useful for describing, explaining, and predicting reality with precision.
Discipline
A body of knowledge on a particular issue, seeking consensus to define a field of study, common standards, ideals, and purpose. It establishes a discipline of teachers and learners who follow guidelines, allowing innovation while preserving established traditions.
Vienna Circle
Formed from scientific discussions initiated in 1907 between sociologist Otto Neurath, mathematician Hans Hahn, and physicist Philipp Frank, the Vienna Circle flourished in 1922 and dissolved during World War II due to the Nazi rise. Members had strong backgrounds in physics and mathematics. The circle opposed all metaphysical speculative philosophy and aimed to build a scientific philosophy where philosophy and science work together. They sought a direct relationship between scientific language and experience to avoid problems in making statements. Despite some differences, all members agreed on the need for a scientific philosophy. The Vienna Circle considered past empiricist philosophers, like Hume, as their predecessors. Hume represented an ideal for eliminating arguments or propositions outside logic or experimental sciences. The circle collaborated with and maintained relationships with other groups (German, American, French, English, Polish, etc.) and philosophers of science. 