Scientific Method, Philosophy, and Progress: A Concise Overview
Hypothetical-Deductive Method
This method combines empirical data (induction) with logical consistency (deduction).
– Definition of the problem: Identify a problematic situation.
– Formulation of hypothesis: Propose a coherent, verifiable explanation.
– Deduction of consequences: Determine what should happen if the hypothesis is true.
– Contrasting the hypothesis: Check if the expected consequences occur.
– Refutation of the hypothesis: Reject the hypothesis if consequences are not met.
– Confirmation of hypotheses: Accept the hypothesis if consequences are met.
– Getting Results: Formulate a new law or theory.
Hypothesis: An assumption about the world and its causes.
Verification: Confirming a hypothesis by observing if it matches reality (using induction).
Falsification: Proposed by Karl Popper, testing a hypothesis by seeking evidence to disprove it. Provisionally true until proven false.
Falsificationism: Scientific laws are characterized by being falsifiable, not by being undoubtedly true.
Scientism: The belief that science is the ultimate form of human rationality, predicting unlimited progress.
Karl Popper: The Continued Progress of Science For falsificationists, no theory is considered true, as it could be falsified in the future. However, science progresses as new theories get closer to the truth.
Thomas Kuhn: Scientific Revolutions He criticized the continuous, progressive view of falsification. History shows that false theories are often replaced by better ones, not just falsified.
Science, especially since the Scientific Revolution, is seen as independent and objective.
Collective knowledge: What a society considers true at a given time.
Research depends on political and economic institutions.
Economic and social priorities determine scientific directions.
The complexity of research has fostered an international scientific community.
The close relationship between science and technology is now called techno.
Science and philosophy initially arose as indistinguishable subjects. However, science became independent of philosophy during the Scientific Revolution.
Galileo revolutionized science through:
Experimentation: Introducing the concept of an ideal situation to eliminate disturbances.
Mathematization: Nature follows mathematical functions, a cornerstone of the new science.
Formal Sciences: Deal with relationships between symbols, not facts. Based on internal consistency.
Logic
Mathematics
Empirical Sciences: Deal with real-world events and relationships. Based on observation and experience.
Natural Sciences: Deal with natural reality.
Chemistry
Biology …
Physics
Social or Human Sciences: Deal with social or human reality.
Sociology
History
Psychology
Specialized sciences use artificial language for objectivity and accuracy:
Concepts: Specific terms, clearly defined:
Qualifiers: Organize reality.
Comparative: Order objects gradually.
Metrics: Measure numerically.
Laws: Basic statements of scientific knowledge, characterized by:
Using precise concepts.
Universally determining a regularity of nature.
Theories: Interconnected, coherent systems of scientific laws.
A scientific explanation is a response to a reason arising from an event.
Ernest Nagel classified scientific explanations into four types: Deductive, probabilistic, teleological, and genetic.
A method is a fixed process with steps to achieve an end.
Deductive Method: Deriving specific conclusions from general principles.
Inductive Method: Drawing general conclusions from specific information. Provides general principles but can be questionable in validity and reliability.