Science in the Modern World
Science for the Modern World
Questionnaire – 2nd Semester
1. The Two Types of Objects in Today’s World
The world contains two main types of objects, both composed of atoms and molecules: living organisms and non-living substances (like minerals). The key difference lies in the processes they undergo. Living organisms carry out biological processes driven by their internal mechanisms, while non-living substances undergo physical and chemical processes influenced by external factors.
2. Darwinian Evolution
Darwinian evolution describes the gradual change in species over many generations. This process occurs slowly, with variations becoming apparent over extended periods.
3. Heredity and Genes
Heredity refers to the transmission of traits from one generation to the next through DNA. These traits, both visible (phenotype) and hidden (genotype), are encoded within genes located on chromosomes. Each gene carries specific information for a particular trait.
4. Phenotype and Genotype
Genotype represents an organism’s genetic makeup, while phenotype encompasses all its observable characteristics. For example, a person’s genotype might include genes for blue eyes, while their phenotype would be the actual blue eye color.
5. Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA
Genes are located on chromosomes, and DNA makes up the genes.
6. What are Genes?
Genes are the instructions (or the recipe) that cells use to create proteins.
7. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
Biotechnology is technology based on biology, with applications in agriculture, pharmacy, food science, forestry, and medicine. Genetic engineering, a specific type of biotechnology, involves manipulating and transferring DNA between organisms.
8. Genetically Modified (GM) Foods
GM foods are derived from organisms whose genes have been modified to enhance specific traits. They are a subject of debate, with proponents (mainly seed companies and intensive agriculture) arguing for their pest and disease resistance, and critics raising concerns about potential ecological impacts and long-term health effects.
9. Stem Cells
Stem cells are pluripotent or multipotent cells capable of differentiating into various tissue types (muscle, nerve, bone, etc.). They are categorized as totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, and unipotent.
10. Cloning
Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies of an organism, cell, or molecule asexually.
11. Important Scientists and Their Contributions
- Gregor J. Mendel: Established the laws of inheritance and introduced the terms “dominant” and “recessive”.
- Rosalind Franklin: Known for Photo 51, an X-ray diffraction image crucial to understanding DNA’s structure.
- Severo Ochoa: Discovered and isolated RNA polymerase.
- Margarita Salas: Advanced Spanish research in biochemistry and molecular biology.
- Louis Pasteur: Developed pasteurization and the rabies vaccine.
- Florence Nightingale: Reformed sanitary conditions in military hospitals.
- Alexander Fleming: Discovered penicillin.
- Edward Jenner: Discovered the smallpox vaccine.
- R. Gallo + L. Montagnier: Jointly discovered the HIV virus.
- Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Discovered the function of neurons and identified Cajal cells.
- Charles Richter + Beno Gutenberg: Developed the Richter scale to measure earthquakes.
12. WHO Definitions of Health and Disease
The World Health Organization defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Disease is defined as a structural or functional impairment that negatively affects well-being.
13. Environmental Impacts on Health
- Ionizing radiation: Can alter cell structure and impair health.
- Noise: Can cause sleep and behavioral problems, and hearing loss.
- Temperature variations: Extreme heat or cold can exacerbate existing health conditions.
- Air pollution: Gases and particles like carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter can affect respiratory health.
14. Matching Diseases and Types
Please provide a clearer format for the two columns to be connected. A table or a list of pairs would be helpful.
15. Pathogens and Examples of Diseases
Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms. Examples include:
- Bacteria: Leprosy
- Viruses: AIDS, Viral Hepatitis
- Protozoa: Malaria
- Fungi: Athlete’s foot
16. Body’s Defense Mechanisms Against Infection
The immune system, composed of white blood cells, antibodies, and other proteins, defends the body against infectious diseases.
17. Treatment of Infectious Diseases
- Bacteria: Antibiotics
- Viruses: Antivirals
- Fungi: Antifungals
- Protozoa: Antiprotozoals
18. How Vaccines Work
Vaccines induce the formation of antibodies by introducing a harmless version or component of a pathogen, which the immune system recognizes as a threat, leading to immunity.
19. The Ozone Hole and Its Impact
The “ozone hole” refers to areas in the atmosphere with abnormally low ozone concentrations. This reduction can lead to increased UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, increasing the risk of skin cancer and harming ecosystems.
20. The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change
The greenhouse effect is the process where certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat radiated from the Earth’s surface after it absorbs solar radiation. This trapped heat warms the planet. There is a complex relationship between ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect, both contributing to climate change.