Saint Augustine: Philosophy, Theology, and the Two Cities
Saint Augustine of Hippo
Context
Born in 354 in Tagaste, and died in 430 in Hippo, where he served as bishop. He is considered the most important Father of the Latin Church. The Church Fathers were the leading thinkers of their time, and their collected writings and doctrines are known as Patristics.
St. Augustine’s life coincided with the decline of the Western Roman Empire, marked by external threats from barbarian invasions and internal economic crises.
From a Christian perspective, the most significant historical event was the privileged institutional status Christianity enjoyed from the 4th century onward. Constantine’s suppression of persecutions granted Christianity religious freedom and equal standing with other religions. This paved the way for its transformation into the official religion of the Empire under Theodosius I, following the Edict of Thessalonica. Under Theodosius, the empire became a confessional state.
Culturally, the Augustinian era is characterized by the decline of ancient science, controversies surrounding core Christian tenets, and the struggle against heresies such as Arianism, Nestorianism, and Pelagianism.
Philosophically, Neoplatonism was dominant and significantly influenced Christian thought. St. Augustine initially attempted to reconcile Christian doctrine with Neoplatonism but ultimately abandoned this endeavor. Plotinus stands out as the most important figure in Neoplatonism.
The Problem of Reason-Faith Relations
This involves the relationship between two sources of knowledge: REASON, the natural source of human knowledge, which gives rise to philosophy; and FAITH, the source of supernatural knowledge. Faith can be defined as a belief based on strong conviction and understanding. This results in revealed theology—truths revealed by the authority of sacred texts and divinely inspired writers, accepted through faith.
St. Augustine resolved this problem by explaining that reason and faith work together to illuminate the single truth of Christianity. This truth can be accessed in two ways: reason reveals part of it, while faith reveals it fully. True religion is also true philosophy, and a correct philosophy will align with the tenets of faith. This collaboration occurs as follows: faith illuminates reason, making belief necessary for understanding. Faith utilizes reason, and the rational understanding of Christian doctrine represents the highest form of authentic faith. St. Augustine advocated for a rational understanding of Christian revelation.
The Problem of Knowledge
Against skeptics who doubted everything, St. Augustine asserted the possibility of finding an indubitable truth: the certainty of one’s own existence.
St. Augustine distinguished between three types of knowledge: SENSIBLE KNOWLEDGE (shared with animals), the lowest form, unreliable due to the instability of sensory experience; LOWER RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE (self-knowledge and knowledge of particular sciences), partly sensible and partly rational, aspiring to general or universal truths; and SUPERIOR INTELLECTUAL KNOWLEDGE (wisdom), true philosophical knowledge focused on eternal, universal, and necessary truths.
St. Augustine located these eternal and unchanging ideas or essences in the mind of God, arguing that their eternal and unchanging nature precludes their origin in the human soul. His theory of illumination is inspired by Plato’s Idea of the Good.
The Problem of God
St. Augustine offered several arguments for God’s existence:
- Historical Argument: The widespread belief in a Supreme Being throughout history.
- Psychological Argument: The inherent human capacity to discover God within the soul.
- Cosmological Argument: The order and beauty of the universe as evidence of a Creator.
- Epistemological Argument: Eternal truths found in the human mind originate from God, the only eternal and unchanging being.
- Concerning Divine Essence: Human attempts to comprehend God’s essence are inherently inadequate.
God is the creator of all things, creating the world ex nihilo (from nothing). This doctrine, influenced by Plato, is known as creationism.
Anthropology
St. Augustine adopted and adapted Plato’s anthropological dualism: the human being is a composite of body and soul, and it is the soul that makes us like God. The human soul is spiritual, simple, and immortal. While the soul is united to a mortal body, this union is accidental, and he did not believe the soul was united to the body as punishment.
Regarding the origin of evil, Augustine rejected Plato’s theory of pre-existence and transmigration of souls. He considered two possibilities: creationism (God creates each soul anew at conception) and traducianism (parents generate the soul in a manner similar to the body).
Ethics: Happiness, Freedom, and Evil
Augustine’s ethics synthesize Platonism and Christianity.
The ultimate goal of human life is happiness, attainable only in the afterlife. The path to happiness coincides with salvation, achieved through virtuous living. Virtue, however, is unattainable without divine grace.
St. Augustine explored the nature of evil. He argued that evil lacks positive existence; it is a privation of good. He distinguished three types of evil: physical evil (resulting from original sin and divine justice); moral evil (sin, a consequence of free will); and metaphysical or ontological evil (the erroneous belief that evil has independent existence).
The Two Cities
According to St. Augustine, human history is divided into two cities:
- Earthly City: Those who despise God but value God’s creations. They pay allegiance to the earthly realm.
- Heavenly City: Those who love God but despise worldly possessions. They pay allegiance to God.