Russia’s Transformation: From Tsarist Rule to the USSR
In the early twentieth century, Russia maintained an absolute monarchy. The monarch, the Tsar, concentrated the supreme power of the state in his hands and exercised it without limits. Although a parliament (Duma) existed, its powers were very limited. The economy remained largely agrarian, although industrialization had started in the late nineteenth century. There were different political forces opposed to the Tsarist regime. These forces represented different social groups and political ideologies: bourgeois parties, revolutionary peasants, and workers, divided into two groups: the Mensheviks (moderate) and Bolsheviks (radical).
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
In 1921, the Soviet Union established a New Economic Policy (NEP) with the objective of rebuilding the battered economy. It allowed farmers to grow and sell freely, permitted free internal trade, and allowed private property for small and medium industrial enterprises. The state remained in control of transport, foreign trade, banking, and big business. These measures stimulated economic growth.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Born in 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was a federation of republics whose number grew over time. It was a multinational state made up of many nations and multi-ethnic groups. In 1928, the constitution was drawn up:
- The republics had domestic policy autonomy in matters such as judicial organization, education, health, and the use of languages and customs.
- The republics could leave the union.
- The supreme legislative organ was the Supreme Soviet.
- The Supreme Soviet appointed the Presidium, whose chairman was the head of state, and the board of commissioners of the town, a sort of council of ministers.
In reality, the political organization was controlled by a single party: the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).
Stalin’s Rise to Power
In 1929, Stalin seized all powers by establishing a personal dictatorship. To ensure this enormous power, he utilized three measures:
- Reinforced the power of the CPSU.
- Cult of personality.
- The use of terror.
The most intense purges took place between 1933 and 1939. Mock trials were held, condemning former party leaders. Thousands were sent to concentration camps (gulags), the majority located in Siberia, where they were subjected to inhumane conditions and forced labor. Stalin also proceeded to establish absolute control over culture.
From 1924, Stalin promoted the idea of five-year plans for the economy. Each plan would set out the economic goals and specify how resources would be used to achieve them. The first plan set the collectivization of land, where owners would give up their plots to the community. The community was organized through collective and state farms.
Key Terms
Bloody Sunday: Violent reprisals resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries.
Soviets: Groups of workers and peasants gathered in assemblies.
War Communism: Nationalization of industry, collectivization of the countryside, and requisition of grain from farmers.
White Army: Supporters of the counterrevolution.
Red Army: Bolsheviks.
Kolkhoz: Collective farms operated on a cooperative basis.
Sovkhozy: State farms using paid labor.