Russia’s Revolutions: From Tsarist Rule to Bolshevik Victory
The Fall of the Tsars in Russia (1905-1917)
The End of the Tsars
In the early twentieth century, Russia was still an absolute monarchy. The monarch concentrated supreme power in his hands and exercised it without limits. Although there was a parliament (Duma), its powers were very limited, as the Tsar could convene or dissolve the Duma at will. The economy remained largely agrarian. However, the establishment of some heavy industries and the construction of the railroad led to growth in the working population. Since the late nineteenth century, different political forces opposed the Tsarist regime. These included bourgeois parties and peasant parties, divided into two main groups: the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks.
The Revolution of 1905
The Revolution of 1905 erupted on January 9th when masses of people marched to the Winter Palace to present their requests to the Tsar. The authorities responded with violent repression, an event known as Bloody Sunday. Peasants and workers organized themselves into soviets (councils). The Tsar was forced to make some concessions, primarily the election of the Duma by universal suffrage. However, he soon returned to governing without the Duma.
The February Revolution of 1917
The Revolution of 1917 began after demonstrations on February 23rd in St. Petersburg. A general strike broke out on the 25th, and riots erupted on the 26th. On February 27th, a provisional government was established. This government attempted to establish a liberal political system, and the Tsar was forced to abdicate. However, the interim government lacked authority. Workers’, peasants’, and soldiers’ soviets formed, and these Soviets were increasingly inclined towards the Bolsheviks, who demanded withdrawal from the war, improved living conditions for workers, land distribution, and recognition of national minorities.
Stalin’s Totalitarian Dictatorship
In 1929, Stalin monopolized all power, employing three primary methods:
- The cult of personality: Through pervasive propaganda.
- The strengthening of the Communist Party’s power.
- Terror: Used to silence any opposition, including purges. Thousands were sent to concentration camps (gulags).
Stalin also exerted absolute cultural control, establishing official socialist realism as the only acceptable artistic trend.
The October Bolshevik Revolution (1917-1921)
The October Revolution of 1917
The Provisional Government failed to address the prevailing social and political instability. Lenin outlined a program that included withdrawal from the war, land redistribution, control of factories by workers’ committees, autonomy for nationalities, and the transfer of power to the soviets. The Bolsheviks had attempted a popular uprising in July, but it failed. In September, the Provisional Government also faced a coup attempt. In October, the Bolsheviks tried again to overthrow the government. The Soviets seized strategic points in the capital. The fall of the Provisional Government was completed after the assault on the Winter Palace on the 25th. Immediately, the government negotiated withdrawal from the war, ordered the allocation of land to peasants, and recognized national minorities.
The Civil War and “War Communism”
By early 1918, the revolution had triumphed. The country was divided, with two main factions: supporters of the counterrevolution, who formed the White Army, and the Bolsheviks, who created the Red Army. The civil war lasted three years (1918-1921) and ended with the victory of the Bolsheviks. To supply the cities, the government adopted an economic policy known as “War Communism.” This involved the nationalization of industry, the collectivization of the countryside, and the requisitioning of grain from farmers. During the period of War Communism, Lenin decisively broke with the liberal state model, replacing it with the dictatorship of the proletariat, centralizing all decisions in the hands of senior Communist Party organs. Both economic and political measures led to popular discontent, resulting in strikes and riots. The most famous of these protests was the revolt of the Kronstadt sailors in 1921.