Russian Revolution, Stalin’s USSR, Crash of ’29, Fascist Italy
1. The Russian Revolution
1.1. Tsarist Autocracy
In the early twentieth century, the great empire of the Tsars still maintained monarchical absolutism. Their economy was the most backward in Europe. The Tsar ruled by decree and was not subject to any constitution. A loyal bureaucracy and a powerful army secured control of the empire, and the Orthodox Church was one of the major pillars of this regime.
Agriculture was the main economic activity, and land belonged to a few landowners. The majority of the population were peasants under a quasi-feudal regime. In some areas of the empire, an industrial process driven by foreign capital had begun. A large industrial proletariat emerged, working in factories for meager wages.
Marxism spread among the workers, and in 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Party was founded. In 1912, it split between Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, the latter led by Lenin.
1.2. The February Revolution
During the First World War, Russia was not prepared for such a long-lasting and costly war. Military disasters led to a decline in agricultural production. Famine appeared in cities, and unrest spread among workers and peasants. This discredited Tsar Nicholas II. The population organized into soviets, or workers’ councils, demanding the Tsar’s withdrawal from the war.
The Fall of the Tsarist Regime: In February 1917, a revolution broke out in Saint Petersburg that brought down the Tsarist regime.
1.3. The October Revolution
The influence of the Bolsheviks, who wanted to establish socialism, became popularized. On October 25, the Soviets rose and took over, dismissing the interim government. Lenin formed a worker’s government. Revolutionary measures were established: land was distributed among peasants, and factories were distributed among the workers.
2. Stalin’s USSR
2.1. Civil War and the Creation of the USSR
The new Soviet government faced a civil war that lasted three years. The Bolsheviks created the Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky. The war left the city in misery. In 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was created. It was ruled by a parliament and a single party, the CPSU.
It was a totalitarian system justified by the dictatorship of the proletariat.
2.2. The Struggle for Power
Lenin died in 1924. Trotsky wanted to export revolution to other countries, and Stalin wanted to build socialism in one country. Stalin became the leader of the USSR.
2.3. Stalinism
The Stalinist political economy imposed a collectivist society, with the objective of making the Soviet Union a major industrial power. To do this, the following guidelines were followed:
- Private ownership was prohibited.
- State ownership became the priority.
- Heavy industry was given priority with the goal of building the necessary infrastructure.
- A state-led economy was instituted.
The result was rapid industrialization, but agriculture was considerably delayed due to its subordination to industry. Stalin established a true dictatorship in which the Communist Party controlled all organs of state.
3. The Crash of ’29 and the New Deal
3.1. Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression
On October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday), a great surge of selling affected the New York Stock Exchange. Nobody wanted to buy shares, causing the price to fall dramatically, triggering the stock market crash of 1929. The stock market crash precipitated the bankruptcy of many banks and companies that could not collect loans. The Great Depression was a widespread economic recession. Seeing tough times ahead, consumption decreased, and factories closed because they could not sell their products. In 1932, there were 13 million unemployed, and families fell into poverty. From the U.S., the crisis spread to the rest of the world because U.S. banks withdrew funds deposited in European banks.
3.2. The Fight Against the Crisis: The New Deal
Franklin D. Roosevelt won the elections in 1932 and implemented a new strategy to promote economic recovery.
Economic and Social Reforms:
Economic measures: assistance to companies in distress, creation of public enterprises in sectors where private investment had not removed accumulated stocks, and state control over banks, forcing them to give low-interest loans. There were also social reforms and public works (roads, dams, etc.). All this led to a relaunch of the U.S. economy and a decline in unemployment. Although the crisis was not overcome until the Second World War, arms factories were built, giving jobs to the unemployed.
4. Italian Fascism
4.1. Italy’s Postwar Situation
At the end of the war, Italy suffered significant human and economic consequences. Many people were killed, and industries were rendered unserviceable. The peace accords were a disappointment because, although Italy was granted Trentino, Trieste, Istria, and Fiume, they were not given Dalmatia. This spread the idea that Italy’s participation in the war had been a hoax. The crisis created strong social tension. In Italy, a strike movement developed, and peasants and workers seized land and factories.
4.2. The Rise of Fascism
In this situation, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919. These groups tried to stop the labor movement by attacking unions. In 1921, the Fasci became the National Fascist Party, presenting themselves as the most effective force to stop the revolutionary movements in Italy. They were supported by the petty bourgeoisie, financed by large landowners, and tolerated by the Catholic Church and King Victor Emmanuel III. In the 1922 elections, the Fascists only obtained 22 out of 500 seats. That same year, they crushed strikes with 300,000 Blackshirts. Mussolini, demonstrating his power, organized a march on Rome with his Blackshirts.
4.3. Fascist Dictatorship
Between 1922 and 1925, Mussolini developed a process of restricting freedoms and persecuting his opponents. After the 1924 elections, won by Mussolini, he established an authoritarian regime. He claimed all powers and called himself Duce.