Russian Revolution: From Tsars to Soviets and Stalin’s Era
Russian Revolution
In the early twentieth century, Russia was torn apart by deep tensions. These stemmed mainly from the autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II, the plight of landless peasants and industrial workers living in harsh conditions, and the existence of a wealthy minority of aristocrats, landowners, and industrialists.
In 1905, social unrest forced the Tsar to concede some power to a parliament, the Duma, and undertake some political and social reforms. However, he continued to reign with absolute authority. Opposition to the regime grew, fueled by military defeats in World War I, especially after the Tsar took personal command of the army in 1915, and the increasing suffering of the civilian population.
Revolution of 1917
The term “Russian Revolution” refers to two revolutions in 1917. First, the February Revolution ended the Tsar’s autocratic rule. Second, the October Revolution (or Bolshevik Revolution) led to the fall of the provisional government and the establishment of a communist dictatorship under Lenin.
February Revolution
Russia’s intervention in World War I exposed its lack of military, political, and economic organization. The mobilization of millions of peasants led to a decline in agricultural production. People went hungry and were disheartened by news from the front. Workers’, peasants’, and soldiers’ councils (Soviets) formed, demanding change.
In February 1917, growing unrest in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) led to the Tsar’s abdication. Power shifted to a provisional government composed of Duma members, who initiated liberal reforms. However, two opposing powers emerged: the provisional government led by Kerensky and supported by the Mensheviks (moderate socialists), and the Soviets, largely led by the Bolsheviks (radical socialists, grouped in the Communist Party) under Lenin.
The October Revolution
The slow pace of land reform under Kerensky’s government and the decision to continue the war, opposed by the Bolsheviks, led many Russians to favor the latter. They began to demand “All Power to the Soviets.” In October, the Bolsheviks staged a second revolution, overthrowing the provisional government. Lenin formed a new government, signed a peace treaty with Germany in 1918 (at a great territorial loss for Russia), and approved the expropriation of large agricultural properties and worker control of factories. These actions sparked opposition and led to the Russian Civil War (1918-1921), which ended with the Bolsheviks’ victory.
Stalinism
After Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle between Trotsky and Stalin ensued, culminating in Stalin’s victory in 1927.
Stalin established a totalitarian political system. The Communist Party controlled all aspects of state and society. Stalin was considered an infallible leader, whose decisions were to be accepted without question. Dissent was brutally suppressed through purges, involving the murder or imprisonment in concentration camps (Gulags) of anyone suspected of political opposition. This ensured the submission of the Soviet people.
Stalin also implemented a firm policy of “Russification” and suppressed any signs of nationalism. One of his main objectives was to transform the USSR into a major economic power. This was achieved through:
- State planning of the economy, establishing agricultural and industrial production targets for five-year periods (Five-Year Plans).
- The prohibition of private land ownership and the collectivization of agriculture into two types of properties: sovkhoz (state farms) and kolkhoz (collective farms, owned but state-controlled).
- The creation of large state-owned industries. The government also controlled trade, banks, and other services.
Within a few years, the Soviet Union became a major economic power.
Lenin’s Government
The Civil War caused the collapse of the Russian economy, and in 1921, a famine claimed five million lives. To address this crisis, Lenin adopted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which combined elements of communism and capitalism: private property was allowed for peasants, but industry and banks remained state-controlled. The NEP succeeded in economic recovery but increased social class differences. Under Lenin, various nationalities that had become independent during the Civil War joined to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in December 1922. Each republic had some self-government but was subject to the decisions of the Communist Party and the Supreme Soviet (parliament).