Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Rule to the USSR
Pre-Revolutionary Russia: A Nation in Crisis
Pre-revolutionary Russia, despite being one of the great powers of Europe, hid a number of weaknesses that revealed it as one of the most backward countries on the continent.
Political Situation
Pre-revolutionary Russia was the last absolute monarchy in Europe, where Tsar Nicholas II (1896-1917) ruled with Tsarist autocracy. The Tsar held all the power and was the head of the Russian Orthodox religion.
Economic and Social Situation
Russia was primarily an agricultural country with an outdated agricultural system. It had a backward social structure, being the last European country to abolish serfdom in 1861.
Industrialization
Industrialization was limited and based on foreign investment. Russia was seen as an untapped market, rich in raw materials. The living and working conditions of the Russian proletariat were reminiscent of European workers 50 years prior.
The 1917 Revolutions: Political Parties
- Constitutional Democratic Party (KD or Kadet Party): A monarchical party that did not seek to overthrow the Tsar but advocated for liberalism.
- Social Revolutionary Party: Formed in 1890, their main idea was to improve the situation of the Russian peasantry.
- Social Democratic Party: Founded in 1898 by Lenin, this party prioritized the proletariat over the peasantry and aimed to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat and eliminate social classes. It had two main factions:
Mensheviks
Applying Marx’s thesis, they believed socialism could not be achieved in a backward country like Russia. They intended to organize a mass party similar to those in Western Europe.
Bolsheviks
Under the leadership of Lenin, they rejected the Mensheviks’ idea in favor of going directly to a socialist revolution, working with the help of the peasantry. Lenin favored a mass party.
Background: The 1905 Revolution
This revolution, described by Trotsky as a “dress rehearsal” for the 1917 revolution, was triggered by the Russo-Japanese War and Russia’s subsequent defeat. Several serious events occurred in 1905:
- Bloody Sunday: A general strike and peaceful demonstration to the Winter Palace to present a letter to the Tsar expressing the people’s plight.
- Revolutionary Strikes: Triggered after Bloody Sunday.
- Military Involvement: Some sectors of the armed forces participated in revolutionary movements, most notably the revolt of the sailors of the battleship Potemkin.
- Formation of Soviets: A revolutionary body known as the Soviets was formed, which would play a significant role in the 1917 revolution.
Tsar Nicholas II was forced to make concessions, known as the October Manifesto, including the formation of a restricted elected parliament.
The Impact of World War I (1914)
World War I ultimately brought down the Tsarist regime. Prices soared, wages stagnated, and a wave of strikes occurred. Mass desertions and calls for a constitutional monarchy arose, which the Tsar rejected. This fueled the idea of overthrowing the Tsar to save the monarchy.
The February Revolution: Fall of the Tsarist Regime (1917)
The war toppled the Tsarist regime. A series of strikes occurred, and the revolutionary movement spread to Moscow. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, leaving power to his brother, Grand Duke Michael, who rejected the throne.
Provisional Government
A dual power structure emerged: the Provisional Government formed by the Liberals and the Soviets, organizations of workers, peasants, and soldiers with socialist ideas. Lenin, who was exiled in Switzerland, returned to Russia, advocating for peace. He wrote his April Theses, expressing disagreement with the Menshevik position, advocating for an immediate rupture between the Provisional Government and the Soviets, all power to the Soviets, and peace at all costs.
The October Revolution
The Bolshevik Revolution took place in ten days that shook the world. The Bolsheviks took over the main centers of the state with minimal violence. Lenin seized power, establishing the power of the Soviets in the cities, led by Bolsheviks like Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin.
Difficult Beginnings (1918-1921)
Lenin faced significant challenges:
Agriculture
Large estates were abolished and distributed, with land coming under the control of rural Soviets.
Industry
Industry came under worker control.
The Problem of World War I
Trotsky attempted to negotiate peace with the Germans, who responded by invading Russian territory. Lenin accepted humiliating conditions from Germany to save the revolution, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
Political Issues
The Cheka, a political police force, was established. In 1918, a constitution was approved, creating the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. All non-Bolshevik parties were eliminated from politics, and the Bolshevik Party began to be called the Communist Party.
Civil War and War Communism (1918-1921)
The Bolsheviks faced opposition from the Kulaks and liberals, known as the White armies, backed by France and Great Britain. The civil war led Lenin to implement domestic policy measures known as War Communism:
- Mandatory requisitioning of crops
- Nationalization of enterprises
- Suppression of private trade
- Agricultural collectivization
From an economic standpoint, these measures were a major failure.
Evolution of the USSR (1921-1939)
Birth of the USSR
In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed, comprising the former Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian republics, Ukraine, and Belarus. A new constitution was adopted in 1923, establishing a federal state with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) as the only party.
The NEP (1921-1927)
After War Communism, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was established in 1921, a mix of state and capitalist economy. It was a partial return to capitalism, justified by Lenin as a necessary step. Measures included:
- Ending the system of agricultural collectivization
- Allowing artisans to sell their products
- Permitting the entry of foreign capital
The NEP was a success, with production returning to 1913 levels.
Stalin’s Rise to Power and Socialism (1927-1939)
After Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle ensued between Trotsky and Stalin. Trotsky was more popular, but Stalin was better positioned within the party. Trotsky’s ideological position, the “permanent revolution,” advocated for extending the socialist revolution beyond Russia. Stalin defended consolidating communism in one country, the USSR. Trotsky was excluded from the party in 1927, exiled in 1929, and assassinated in 1940. Stalin became the absolute master of the USSR until his death in 1953.
Five-Year Plans
Once in power, Stalin completely eliminated the NEP.