Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Rule to Soviet Union
The Russia of the Tsars
A Vast and Overdue Empire
In the mid-nineteenth century, Russia was the largest country in the world, spanning 22 million square kilometers and boasting 150 million inhabitants. It was one of the most backward countries in Europe, with a political, social, and economic system resembling feudalism. Economically, agriculture was backward and unproductive, lacking machinery and fertilizers. Eighty percent of the population were landless, miserable peasants, while the land was owned by landowners called kulaks. Industry developed very little in the western part and was mostly heavy industry. It was primarily owned by foreigners, mainly the French. There was little domestic demand, and the workers lived in poor conditions.
Politically, Tsar Nicholas II ruled as an absolute monarch, accountable to no one but God. He was the head of state and the Orthodox religion. Society and the people would eventually bring down the foundations of the Tsarist regime.
Growth of the Opposition
Since the late nineteenth century, opposition to the Tsar grew with the emergence of discontented peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie, who blamed the government for their miseries. Later, liberal and workers’ ideologies such as Marxism and anarchism spread from Europe. Clandestine political parties emerged, including:
- Bourgeois parties like the Constitutional Democratic Party (KDT), which wanted a parliamentary republic similar to Europe.
- Peasant parties like the Social Revolutionary Party led by Kerensky, which favored land distribution.
- The Workers’ Party, known as the Russian Social Democratic Party, which was Marxist and eventually split into two factions:
- Bolsheviks: The majority, who wanted a quick working revolution and did not want agreements with the bourgeoisie. They were radicals, and their leader was Lenin.
- Mensheviks: The minority, who were moderate and wanted slower changes (including a second bourgeois revolution, followed by a worker’s revolution). Their leader was Martov.
The Revolution of 1905 and Attempts at Reform
Opposition to Tsar Nicholas II grew daily due to the poor living conditions of most of the population, excessive spending, and corruption of the court under the influence of the sinister character Rasputin, as well as significant expenditures on wars (such as the Russo-Japanese War, which Russia lost in 1904). A revolution broke out in 1905, with people demanding changes in government. They confronted the Tsar at the gates of the Winter Palace, his residence. The Tsar sent his troops to attack the population, and this repression was called Bloody Sunday in St. Petersburg.
The sailors of the battleship Potemkin in the Black Sea confronted the officers who favored the Tsar. After the revolution, the Tsar promised changes, including the creation of a parliament called the Duma and land reform with land distribution. These changes were never fully implemented. New labor organizations called Soviets (councils of workers and peasants) emerged to oppose the Tsar’s government. The most important was that of St. Petersburg.
The February Revolution of 1917
The Juncture of the First World War
In 1914, Russia entered World War I as part of the Triple Entente with Britain and France. Peace turned into war. Agricultural production soon declined because farmers became soldiers. The few products available became expensive, and many people went hungry. Russia suffered many setbacks against Germany but the Tsar did not want to leave the war. Nobody trusted the Tsar, and his government was approaching a revolution, even more so than in 1905.
The Fall of the Tsar (February 1917)
Many strikes occurred throughout Russia, culminating in a nationwide general strike. Soviets were formed to organize the revolution. The Tsar, who refused to withdraw from World War I, was pressured by the military and politicians to resign. A republic was established, and the Duma created a provisional government headed by Lvov, a member of the bourgeois KDT party. He promised social reforms, freedom of opinion, assembly, and the press, and an eight-hour workday. However, he kept Russia in World War I.
As the situation did not improve and the people continued to suffer, the Soviets, especially that of Petrograd, became increasingly important. A dual power emerged: the provisional government, which was official but unpopular, and the Soviets.
Dual Power (March-October 1917)
In March, the confrontation between the Soviets and the government continued. In April, Lenin published his April Theses, in which he spoke of the need for Russia to withdraw from World War I and to move from a bourgeois revolution to a working-class revolution through insurrection. Lvov was dismissed because he was no longer wanted by the people. He was replaced by Kerensky, a member of the Peasant Party (SR) in the State Duma. Kerensky promised deep reforms and land allocation but not Russia’s exit from World War I. He faced opposition from the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks.
In August, the Tsarist General Kornilov attempted a coup. Kerensky, unable to cope with this threat, sought help from the Soviets. The Soviets defeated the far-right forces and realized the weakness of Kerensky’s government. The Soviets began planning their own coup.
The October Revolution of 1917
Revolutionary Days
In the summer of 1917, the Bolsheviks, along with members of the SR and Menshevik parties who were unhappy with the government, planned an armed insurrection. They chose October 25th, the day of the Second Congress of Soviets of Russia. Early that morning, they raided key locations and the Winter Palace. Kerensky fled the palace along with his ministers. Due to the power vacuum, the Soviets took control of the Russian government, which became Bolshevik.
First Revolutionary Measures
After the Bolshevik coup, Kerensky’s government was replaced by Lenin’s. Lenin became the president of Russia and was advised by a Council of People’s Commissars with a working-class and peasant character. The first amendments were:
- Withdrawal of Russia from World War I after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), which required surrendering land to Germany (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Bessarabia).
- Allocation of land to workers.
- Worker control of factories.
- Abolition of the Tsarist army, replaced by a volunteer army.
- Right to self-determination for the peoples of Russia, leading to the creation of small republics.
Years After the Russian Revolution
In 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was created. In 1923, the first working Russian constitution was established, stating that each independent republic had control over justice, education, health, and customs. Other aspects of domestic and foreign policy were controlled by Lenin, his government, and the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union). Lenin wanted to spread communism in Europe and created the Third International, also known as the Comintern, to promote communism and establish national Communist parties.
In 1924, Lenin died and was replaced by Stalin (whose name means”iro”), the chairman of the CPSU. Stalin created a totalitarian dictatorship and implemented a reign of terror, killing those suspected of opposing him.
Communist Economy
The state controlled the economy through five-year plans. Everything was owned by the state, as there was no private property. Agricultural collectivization was a failure, leading to hunger and scarcity. The state prioritized heavy industry, which experienced significant development, but neglected consumer goods essential for the population.