Russian Civil War and the 1905 Revolution: Causes and Outcomes
The Russian Civil War and War Communism
The Civil War erupted following the revolution, with Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries, liberals, and Tsarists rising against Lenin. Counter-revolutionary forces acted from Poland, Siberia, Crimea, and the Caucasus, forming the White Army. European powers provided financial and material support. An expeditionary force comprised of French, British, and American troops landed in Arkangelsk, Murmansk, and the White Sea, while Japanese and U.S. forces took control of Vladivostok. Lenin’s Red Army confronted the White Army.
The Red Guard served as the foundation for the Red Army, but it was inadequate for a large-scale war. Trotsky’s task was immense: he imposed harsh discipline and control through political commissars, which helped to increase the number of soldiers.
Repression also increased against anti-Soviet movements. The imperial family was assassinated in Yekaterinburg in 1918. Economic transformations accelerated, leading to the development of War Communism (1918-1921), which aimed to bring all sectors of the economy under state control. The situation was chaotic: agriculture was ruined, international blockades prevented the acquisition of resources, and fuel and industry were severely reduced. This meant that combatants and the population suffered shortages.
Consequently, revolts erupted, including the Kronstadt uprising, triggered by the Bolshevik regime’s limitations on freedoms. The new International in Moscow was established. The Civil War unfolded with the Red Army and White Army fighting, while Allied forces remained involved. By 1920, the tide of the war had turned, and the Red Army controlled most of Russian territory. The war ended in 1922 with approximately 5 million deaths and a Bolshevik victory.
The 1905 Revolution
The 1905 Revolution stemmed from socioeconomic circumstances and Russia’s defeat against Japan. On January 22nd, “Bloody Sunday” occurred when a rally in St. Petersburg, led by Father Gapon, seeking social and political improvements, was brutally repressed. This sparked outrage and deepened the divide between the Tsarist regime and its subjects. Disorders spread, and the crew of the Battleship Potemkin mutinied. In October, a general strike gained revolutionary and liberal support. Tsar Nicholas II, advised by his minister Witte, issued the October Manifesto, agreeing to grant political freedoms, create a Duma with limited legislative powers, and implement a broad electoral law. This was seen as a triumph for the Constitutional Democrats (KD), but not for the revolutionaries. The opposition continued to organize, thanks to the Soviets, most importantly the St. Petersburg Soviet led by Trotsky. The Soviets proposed an uprising by Kronstadt sailors and strikes by farmers. In 1906, a new electoral law favored large landowners, rendering the Duma ineffective.
The 1924 Constitution
After the Civil War and the implementation of War Communism, the first Soviet Constitution was drafted in 1923 and ratified by the Soviet Congress a year later.
It established a federal system in Russia, creating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which granted each republic the right to self-determination. The supreme authority rested in the Congress of Soviets, which delegated power to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. These were permanent bodies, with the Presidium serving as the executive branch with real power. However, the Communist Party, as the sole party of the USSR, controlled the Presidium through the Politburo and the party secretary. The Party Congress was the authentic directorate.