Russia on the Eve of Revolution: Politics and Society
Russia in the Early 20th Century
In the early 20th century, the Russian Empire was one of the world’s largest and most populous nations. However, it lagged politically, economically, and socially, existing in a state between feudalism and early industrialization.
Political Landscape: The Tsarist Autocracy
Political power was concentrated in the hands of the Tsar, Nicholas II, who ruled as an autocrat and served as the head of the Orthodox Church. His power was supported by several key pillars:
- The aristocracy
- The army
- A loyal civil service
- The secret police
- The Orthodox Church
Earlier in the 19th century, Tsar Alexander II had attempted timid reforms. His most significant act was the emancipation of the serfs, a move that affected millions. However, Alexander II was assassinated, and his successors, Alexander III and Nicholas II, reverted to a strict autocratic rule. This led to growing opposition to Tsarism.
Economic Conditions: Agriculture and Industry
Struggling Agriculture
The foundation of the Russian economy was agriculture, which suffered from low productivity and antiquated methods. Alexander II’s emancipation of the serfs was intended to improve production by creating a class of land-owning peasants, but this effort failed. The nobility retained 40% of the land, while former serfs received small plots for which they had to pay their former owners, in addition to state taxes. Their economic situation often worsened. Some peasants formed rural communities known as the Mir, but many lost their land due to foreclosure.
Late Industrialization
Russia’s industrialization began late, in the second half of the 19th century. Key industrial sectors included textiles and metallurgy, concentrated in cities like St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Ural Mountains region. This development was funded by a mixture of Russian and foreign capital, particularly from France.
Social Hierarchy
Russian society was sharply divided. The privileged groups included the landed aristocracy, who held high positions in the court and administration, and the clergy. A small industrial and financial bourgeoisie was emerging, along with the kulaks, who were wealthy peasant proprietors.
The middle classes were not numerous and consisted of small merchants, industrialists, professionals, and intellectuals, primarily living in cities. This group largely believed that Russia needed modernization. The vast lower classes were composed of impoverished workers and peasants, with millions living in miserable conditions.
The Rise of Political Opposition
Several groups emerged in opposition to the Tsarist system:
- Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets): Initially a liberal movement, their goal was to establish a democratic constitution and secure political liberties for Russia.
- Populist Movement (Narodniks): With a social base in the peasantry, this movement advocated for the distribution of land among peasants and accepted the use of violence. Anarchist and populist organizations like Land and Freedom took root within this movement and were responsible for the assassination of Alexander II. From 1901, this movement evolved into the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
- Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP): Founded in 1898 with leaders like Vladimir Lenin, this Marxist party soon split into two factions:
- The Mensheviks (meaning ‘minority’, though they were often the larger group) believed that a bourgeois revolution must precede a socialist one, following a traditional Marxist model.
- The Bolsheviks (meaning ‘majority’), led by Lenin, were a more radical minority. They argued that a communist revolution could be led by a vanguard of professional revolutionaries who would then educate the masses.