Russia on the Brink: From Tsarist Rule to Revolution
Russia Before the Revolution
An Agrarian Society: Russian society was primarily agrarian, relying on traditional agriculture with low yields and frequent crop losses. The majority of the Russian peasantry worked on cereal estates. Wealthier peasants were known as *kulaks*.
Beginnings of Industrialization in Russia: Tsarist Russia began a limited industrialization process characterized by several peculiarities:
- The construction of railways, especially the state-managed Trans-Siberian Railway, initiated the process.
- There was significant foreign investment, particularly from France.
- Russian industry focused on heavy industries.
- Industrial belts formed in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
- The Russian bourgeoisie was relatively small.
A Multiethnic Empire: Russia was a conglomeration of peoples, languages, and religions.
The Beginnings of Political Opposition: The most important political groups were:
- Democratic Constitutional Party (KD): Known as the Cadets, they represented urban minorities and the bourgeoisie.
- Socialist Revolutionary Party: Represented the interests of the Russian peasantry.
- Russian Social Democratic Labour Party: Represented industrial workers and intellectuals. In 1903, it split into two factions:
- Mensheviks: Moderate socialists led by Kerensky.
- Bolsheviks: More radical, led by Lenin.
The 1905 Revolution
Causes of the Crisis:
- Russia fought Japan for control of Korea and Manchuria. Japan, a smaller power, exposed the inability of Russia’s absolute system to cope with modern warfare.
- Privileged sectors pressed the Tsar to continue the war.
- There was a push for the legalization of political parties, met with strong opposition from those favored by the Tsarist regime.
- Political conflict became increasingly social.
- Different nationalities protested, demanding recognition of their rights.
- A deep economic crisis developed.
Bloody Sunday
On January 22, 1905, a protest led by priest George Gapon, involving peasants, women, and children, marched to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to protest the rising price of bread. The event resulted in dozens of deaths, triggering the 1905 Revolution.
1905 Revolution: Key events included the Battleship Potemkin mutiny and the bombing of Odessa. Protests spread to industrial centers, with community organizations like the Soviets forming. Leon Trotsky led the revolution.
Count Witte promulgated an imperial decree, the October Manifesto, which recognized basic civil liberties and established the Duma, with members elected by universal suffrage. A finance manifesto was also issued. Despite its ultimate failure, the 1905 Revolution was crucial in shaping the political forces that would play key roles in the 1917 Revolution.
The Road to 1917
The Revolutionary Climate: The Russian army suffered a series of defeats against the German army, facing problems such as lack of supplies and outdated military technology. Bolshevik propaganda called for withdrawal from the war, and mass desertions occurred. Civilians began to suffer from shortages.
The February Revolution and the End of Tsarist Rule: A general strike called by workers gained the support of soldiers. Workers’ Soviets expanded, and together with soldiers and Mensheviks, they established a provisional government headed by Prince Lvov. The Soviet and Duma agreed to appoint Kerensky as Prime Minister.
The Failed Reforms of the Provisional Government: Lenin issued his April Theses: “Peace, Bread, and Land.” Kerensky appointed the Tsarist General Kornilov, leading to an attempted coup d’état to restore the Tsar. Trotsky formed the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Soviet as Lenin returned from exile in Finland.
The October Revolution
The Bolsheviks in Power: Lenin declared, “All power to the Soviets.” Bolshevism presented itself as the defender of the revolution, accusing the interim government of betrayal. On October 25, Kerensky was forced to flee, and the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace.
The Russian Civil War
“Red Russia” was organized by the Bolsheviks, with Trotsky leading the Red Army. “White Russia” represented the anti-Bolshevik forces. The conflict was characterized by “war communism.”