Rousseau’s Critique of Enlightenment: Reason, Virtue, and Society
The Enlightenment according to Rousseau
Most Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason to define knowledge, virtue, and happiness. They believed that by changing common thought and disseminating knowledge, they could reform society. Rousseau, however, rejected this equation. While acknowledging the importance of knowledge, he championed virtue and critiqued societal disguises that hinder well-being, turning people into slaves of luxury. He argued that the pursuit of knowledge alone could lead to vanity and dependence on artificial needs, causing alienation and dissatisfaction. We often mistake instrumental means (possessions, wealth) for real ends, ignoring the fundamental distinction between being and having.
Rousseau did not contest science itself but defended virtue. He criticized the empiricists’ thesis from an ethical and evaluative perspective, examining the state of nature and its origins. He is considered a precursor to sociology, offering a critical and evaluative sociological analysis rather than a purely descriptive one.
Sergio Sevilla suggests interpreting Rousseau as a thinker in conflict with fanaticism and skepticism, proposing a form of rationalism. He aimed to:
A. Critique Established Philosophy
Rousseau sought to distinguish genuine knowledge from pseudo-knowledge, differentiating authentic philosophers from others.
B. A Practical Approach to Philosophy
Rousseau focused on questions concerning human nature, ethics, and politics. He believed that moral principles are discovered through an inner guidance, the voice of conscience, more infallible than books. As he stated in “Responding to the King of Poland” (p. 55-6): “It is true that to learn to do right is essential to know how many ways you can do wrong. We have an inner guidance more infallible than all the books and never leaves us in need.” This guidance comes from listening to the voice of conscience in the silence of the passions (DAC, p. 32). Moral principles, inscribed in human nature—freedom, equality, piety, religiosity—are felt through emotional intuition. Reason then works to clarify these principles, drawing logical conclusions and understanding their practical consequences.
Rousseau advocated for a natural, simple, universal reason, common to all, integrating feelings and intellect. He believed that true human needs are innate, absolute, and final, not external or artificial. Instrumental and theoretical reason should serve these needs, preventing us from losing sight of humanity’s real purpose. Practical reason should determine fundamental human needs, while technical and theoretical reason should facilitate their achievement.
Rousseau critiqued the social misuse of science due to societal vices, as discussed in his Second Discourse. He focused on the corruption of reason in corrupt societies, characterized by the absence of freedom and happiness.
What to Do?
To eliminate corrupt societies, Rousseau proposed two essential reforms: political reform and educational and moral reform.