Roman Oratory: A History and Analysis of Key Figures and Techniques

Posted on Sep 27, 2024 in Latin

Rhetoric and Oratory in Republican Rome

The Romans were gifted orators. However, until the Hellenistic influence of the 3rd century BCE, they didn’t fully realize the power of well-crafted words. Inspired by Greek orators like Demosthenes, Aeschines, and Lysias, the Romans sought to emulate their style, composition, and literary forms.

By the early 2nd century BCE, Greek rhetoricians (rhetor Graeci) were teaching eloquence in Rome. Despite the Senate’s expulsion of Greek philosophers and orators in 161 BCE, the teaching continued. Roman orators (rhetor latini) emerged, teaching in Latin but drawing heavily from Greek techniques. This fusion of Greek and Roman traditions is captured in Horace’s famous line: “Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit” (“Captive Greece took captive her savage conqueror”).

Among the orators of this period, Cicero stands out. While figures like Appius Claudius Caecus, Quintus Caecilius Metellus, Quintus Fabius Maximus “Cunctator,” Marcus Porcius Cato, Servius Sulpicius Galba, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, Lucius Licinius Crassus, and Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus are known, Cicero’s extensive writings offer deeper insights.

In the early 1st century BCE, distinct oratorical styles emerged in Rome:

  1. The Asian style (rhetor asiatici), known for its florid language, rhythmic delivery, wit, and sometimes overly ornate style.
  2. The neo-Attic style, characterized by its plain, direct, and concise language, modeled after the Greek orator Lysias. This style had less success and didn’t form schools.

Cicero’s style was considered too Asian by the Attic school. His main rival was Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, a prominent representative of the Asian style. Hortensius possessed natural eloquence and was Rome’s most celebrated orator until Cicero’s victory in the Pro Quinctio case (81 BCE). Though rivals, they later became friends and collaborated on cases. Hortensius’s speeches were notable for their methodical divisions and summations, a practice not common before him. However, his reliance on natural talent eventually led to a decline in his reputation.

While many works from this period are lost, the Rhetorica ad Herennium survives. This manual provides a comprehensive overview of the teachings of the rhetor latini. Though based on Greek principles, it uses Latin examples and language. It’s valued for its clarity rather than its style. While traditionally attributed to Cicero, it’s now believed to be the work of Cornificius, possibly inspired by the Greek rhetorician Hermagoras.

Types and Parts of Speech

Types of Discourse

The main types of Roman speeches were:

  1. Laudationes (Funeral Orations): Eulogies delivered upon someone’s death, often exaggerated and embellished.
  2. Political Speeches: Delivered during public office, often in the Senate, curia, or forum.
  3. Judicial Speeches: Delivered in the forum or court, involving accusations (e.g., In Verrem) and defenses (e.g., Pro Milone, Pro Archia Poeta).
  4. Thanksgiving Speeches: Expressions of gratitude to the gods, Senate, and people.

A century after Cicero, rhetoric shifted from practical application to school exercises. Seneca’s Sententiae, Divisiones, Colores exemplifies this change. Historiography also incorporated speeches, with Sallust and Livy notably including fictionalized speeches within their historical narratives.

Parts of Speech

Roman speeches followed a structured format, likely influenced by Aristotle:

  1. Exordium (Introduction): Prepared the audience for the speech.
  2. Narratio (Narration): Presented the facts of the case clearly and concisely.
  3. Partitio (Division): Outlined the structure of the speech.
  4. Argumentatio (Argument): Presented evidence and refuted opposing arguments.
  5. Digressio (Digression): A tangential discussion to engage the audience and provide a respite.
  6. Peroratio (Conclusion): Summarized the argument and aimed to evoke the desired emotional response.

While this structure was standard, orators adapted it based on context and audience.

Cicero: The Master of Roman Oratory

In 1st century BCE Rome, education began with grammar (ages 12-16), focusing on Greek and Roman literature. Rhetoric followed (ages 16-18), emphasizing Greek eloquence. Higher education often took place in Greece.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE), born in Arpinum, rose from the equestrian class to become a prominent figure in Roman politics. His education was broad, encompassing philosophy, law, and eloquence. He honed his skills in the forum, gaining recognition for his audacity in challenging established figures like Hortensius and Sulla’s supporter, Chrysogonus.

Cicero’s time in Greece, studying under Molon of Rhodes, refined his oratorical style, moving away from the declining Asian style towards the more classical Rhodian approach. Upon returning to Rome, he built a successful legal career, entering the cursus honorum (political career path). His prosecution of Verres, the corrupt governor of Sicily, further elevated his status.

As consul in 63 BCE, Cicero suppressed the Catiline Conspiracy, a plot to overthrow the Republic. This event marked the beginning of his rivalry with Julius Caesar. Cicero’s exile in 58 BCE, orchestrated by political enemies, was followed by his return and governorship of Cilicia (51-50 BCE).

During the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Cicero sided with Pompey. Despite this, Caesar pardoned him. After Caesar’s assassination, Cicero’s Philippics, speeches against Mark Antony, inadvertently aided Octavian’s rise. Proscribed by the Second Triumvirate, Cicero was killed in 43 BCE.

Cicero’s extensive correspondence reveals his vanity and vulnerabilities, but also his honesty, kindness, and intellectual curiosity. He was a man of principle in a corrupt era, a gifted writer and orator who navigated a tumultuous period in Roman history.

The Works of Cicero

Cicero’s primary focus was legal oratory, both in civil and criminal cases. His speeches covered various charges, including extortion, treason, and political disputes. He also delivered speeches in defense of individuals exiled or disgraced by Pompey, and later, Caesar.