Roman Literature: Genres, Authors, and Works

Roman Literature

Elegy (Ovid)

Origins

Elegy originated in Greece as any composition in elegiac distich. In Rome, during the Augustan period, it evolved into the great Roman elegy, characterized by love themes often tinged with sadness and pain.

Cornelius Gallus

Gallus wrote four books of elegies, now mostly lost, devoted to his mistress Lycoris. A friend of Augustus, he committed suicide after falling out of favor.

Tibullus

Part of Messalla’s literary circle, Tibullus wrote four books of poems exploring themes of love, country, war, wealth, old age, sickness, and honor. His style is simple, bold, and delicate.

Propertius

Also belonging to Messalla’s circle, Propertius wrote four books of elegies inspired by his muse, Cynthia. The first three books reflect his love for her, while the fourth explores Roman and mythological themes. His style is a mix of passion and erudition.

Ovid

Life

Born in Sulmona in 43 BC, Ovid studied law and oratory but dedicated himself to poetry. He enjoyed the pleasures of Rome but was banished by Augustus to Tomi in 17 AD, where he died. The reasons for his exile remain unclear (“carmen et error”).

Work

• Love Elegy: Heroides, Amores, Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris
• Painful Elegy: Tristia, Epistulae ex Ponto
• Didactic Poetry: Fasti, Metamorphoses

Metamorphoses

An epic poem in dactylic hexameter, comprising 15 books and recounting some 250 mythological transformations. The myths are presented in chronological order, from the creation of the universe to the metamorphosis of Julius Caesar. The work’s influence on Western culture is immense.

Comedy (Plautus)

Origins

Comedy originated as literary compositions for dialogue-based performances. In Rome, its roots can be traced to the Atellana Fabula, a popular farce with four stock characters (Maccus, Bucco, Pappus, and Dossennus), heavily influenced by Greek theater.

Classification of Dramatic Works

• Tragedy: Featuring gods and heroes, with elevated language and a solemn tone.
• Comedy: Featuring everyday people, with colloquial language.

Both genres arrived in Rome as translations of Greek works. Later, Roman playwrights began to create original works.

Time and Place of Performance

Public Games

Performances were held during festivals like the Ludi Megalenses (April), Ludi Apollinares (July), Ludi Romani (September), and Ludi Plebeii (November).

Venue

Initially, performances took place in open areas, with spectators standing or sitting on the ground. Later, temporary wooden theaters were built. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent stone theater, and Augustus built the Theater of Marcellus in 13 BC. Well-preserved Roman theaters can still be found on the Iberian Peninsula (Mérida, Sagunto).

Organization of Games

The games were organized by a magistrate who appointed a director (Dominus Gregis) to stage the play. Actors were all male and used wigs and masks. Performances took place in the afternoon and were free to attend. Officials maintained order.

Plautus

Life

Born in Sarsina around 254 BC, Plautus came to Rome and earned money in the theater. After losing his fortune, he was forced into manual labor. Writing comedies brought him popularity, and he dedicated himself to the theater. He was a man of the people and understood Roman life.

Work

Plautus adapted Greek plays (fabulae palliatae) into five-act comedies. He wrote around 21 plays, featuring stock characters like the glutton (Artotrogus), the courtesan (Philocomasium), and the braggart soldier (Pyrgopolynices). He focused on creating humorous situations rather than psychological depth. His language is lively and incorporates colloquialisms.

Most Important Comedies

• Asinaria
• Captivi
• Aulularia

Other Works

• Casina
• Pseudolus
• Rudens

Influence

Plautus’s influence can be seen in the works of Shakespeare (Comedy of Errors), Molière (The Miser), Giraudoux (Amphitryon 38), and Juan de la Cueva (The Old Love).

Lyric Poetry (Horace)

Origins

Before Horace, Roman lyric poetry was primarily limited to prayers and hymns.

Development of Lyric Poetry

In the mid-2nd century BC, lyric poets emerged around the figure of Lutatius Catulus, a prominent orator, historian, poet, and man of culture. These poets cultivated the erotic epigram, imitating Alexandrian poets.

Neoteroi (Poetae Novi)

A term used by Cicero to describe a group of contemporary poets who sought to revolutionize literature. They admired Greek poetry and infused their works with personal feelings, drawing inspiration from Alexandrian poets.

Catullus

Catullus (c. 84-54 BC) wrote 116 poems, divided into three sections: poems of everyday life, learned poems and epigrams in elegiac couplets, and more personal poems. Many are dedicated to his lover, Lesbia. His style is characterized by a search for perfection and the use of diminutives.

Virgil (Bucolics)

Virgil (70-19 BC) represents the beginning of Augustan poetry. His Eclogues, a collection of 10 pastoral poems, are modeled on the work of Theocritus.

Horace

Life

Born in Venusia in 65 BC, Horace received an education in Rome and Athens. He fought on the losing side at the Battle of Philippi and returned to Rome ruined. He was introduced to Maecenas, a patron of the arts, and dedicated himself to perfecting his poetry.

Non-Lyric Work

• Satires (2 books in dactylic hexameter, social criticism)
• Epistles (2 books, offering moral advice and exploring personal matters)

Lyric Work

• Epodes (17 short poems, often satirical, employing iambic meter)
• Odes (4 books containing 104 poems on various themes)
• Carmen Saeculare (commissioned by Augustus for the Secular Games in 17 BC)

Horatian Themes

• Carpe Diem (seize the day)
• Beatus Ille (the blessed life of the countryside)
• Exegi Monumentum Aere Perennius (I have built a monument more lasting than bronze)
• Aurea Mediocritas (the golden mean)
• Delectare et Docere (to delight and instruct)

Lyric Poetry After Horace

After Horace, lyric poetry declined. Notable authors include Papinius Statius (Silvae) and the Poetae Novi (who attempted to revive the Neoteric style).

Historiography (Caesar)

Early Roman Historiography

Cato the Elder was the first to write history in Latin. His work, Origines (7 books), focused on Roman and Italian history and reflected his nationalistic and anti-Greek sentiments.

Republican Historiography

Cornelius Nepos

Nepos’s work, De Viris Illustribus (16 books), compared the lives of Greek and Roman figures. Only Book III, containing 23 biographies, survives. His style is considered monotonous and repetitive.

Julius Caesar

Caesar’s historical works are of undeniable literary value and, along with Cicero’s writings, represent a model of classical prose.

• Commentarii de Bello Gallico (8 books recounting the conquest of Gaul, with the last book written by Aulus Hirtius)
• Commentarii de Bello Civili (3 books justifying the civil war against Pompey)

Sallust

Sallust was a major political figure and historian. His language is archaic and his style concise. His works include Bellum Catilinae (on the Catilinarian Conspiracy) and Bellum Iugurthinum (on the Jugurthine War).

Augustan Historiography

Livy

Livy’s monumental work, Ab Urbe Condita Libri (142 books), recounts Roman history from the founding of the city to his own time. Only Books 1-10 and 21-45 survive. His work exalts Rome and presents a moralistic view of history.

Tacitus

Considered the greatest Roman historian, Tacitus wrote both universal and Roman history. His style is characterized by brevity and variety.

• Major Works: Historiae (14 books) and Annales (16 books)
• Minor Works: Agricola, Germania, and Dialogus de Oratoribus

Later Historiography

Suetonius

Suetonius’s style is considered monotonous, and his work is extensive. His most famous work, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars), is a collection of biographies covering the rulers from Julius Caesar to Domitian.