Roman Historiography, Literature, and Rhetoric
Roman Historiography
Latin historiography always had a moralistic and political purpose. Writers often reflected the views of the ruling power, though some expressed dissenting opinions. Imperial censorship sometimes suppressed critical works. Notable historians after Livy and Tacitus, who weren’t imperial supporters, offer valuable insights. Livy, writing under Augustus, presents an idealized view of that era. Tacitus, writing during the peaceful Antonine period, still recalled the excesses of the previous era, offering a more pessimistic perspective.
Livy
Born during the Republican era, Livy wrote 142 books of Roman history, Ab Urbe Condita. His work champions virtues like morality and patriotism. His style features dense, symmetrical periods, archaic expressions, metaphors, and imaginative descriptions. However, he’s criticized for including unverified, possibly mythical events.
Tacitus
Tacitus wrote during the empire’s golden age. Considered the best Roman historian, his style is terse, vigorous, and archaic. He utilized imperial archives but sometimes constructed speeches for his characters. His works offer a vivid portrait of his time and a logical character study. His works include Dialogue of Speakers (comparing poetry and oratory), histories from Nero’s death onward, and Annals (from Augustus’s death to Nero).
Roman Epigrams
Epigrams are short, inscribed verses for tombs, statues, or monuments, often praising heroes or the deceased. Key features include concision and wit. Romans added sarcastic irony. Catullus and Martial cultivated this form.
Martial
Born in the first century AD to a humble family, Martial arrived in Rome during a depraved and oppressive period. Resourceful and witty, he became a poet. His first book was Liber Spectaculorum. His life improved, but he remained unhappy, eventually returning to his hometown, where he grew increasingly depressed until his death. Martial’s work reflects his life, featuring (under pseudonyms) corrupt and unsavory characters, yet he also displayed sensitivity in defending the weak. His epigram books are known for their crude language and lively style.
Oratory and Rhetoric
Eloquence was essential in Roman society, whether in public assemblies, courts, or everyday life. Young patricians, often pursuing political careers, needed strong speaking skills. They also acted as patrons, defending their clients in legal cases. Professional lawyers didn’t exist, as charging fees was forbidden, though this was often circumvented through “gifts.” Early Romans valued truthfulness in orators, emphasizing gravitas, dignitas, and bona fides. Rhetoric, the art of speaking well, was learned through practice and Greek rhetorical schools. These schools taught argumentation, organization, audience adaptation, and stylistic techniques. Exercises included suasoriae (deliberative speeches) and controversiae (legal speeches).
Cicero
Of plebeian origin, Cicero aligned with the conservative senatorial nobility. A contemporary of Caesar, they represented opposing forces: Caesar, a patrician, championed the democratic and wealthy, while Cicero, a commoner, defended the senatorial nobility. A sensitive and intelligent man, Cicero was a skilled lawyer and prolific writer. His works include political speeches (Catiline Orations, Philippics), judicial speeches (Pro Roscio, Pro Milone), and philosophical treatises (On Friendship, De Legibus).
Quintilian
Of Spanish origin, Quintilian studied in Rome and became a famous lawyer and esteemed educator. His main work, Institutio Oratoria, compiles his vast teaching experience, showcasing his pedagogical skill and classicist stance.
Epic Poetry
Epic poetry narrates wars or heroic deeds, often featuring mythical characters. Many cultures have traditional epics celebrating national heroes. These early epics, oral in nature, were sung by rhapsodes. Eventually, some were written down, such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Epic poetry then shifted from collective creation to individual authorship, retaining its grand style, fixed epithets, and hexameter verse.
Virgil
Born in the first century BC in northern Italy to a humble family, Virgil’s father, a potter’s assistant, married his employer’s daughter, improving their financial standing. This allowed Virgil to receive a good education, culminating in studies in Rome, where he studied rhetoric and philosophy. He avoided politics but gained recognition through his writing. Octavian Augustus and his statesman Maecenas became his patrons. Virgil spent years writing the Georgics and the last fourteen years of his life on the Aeneid. He enjoyed great fame, and Christians later embraced his work, interpreting his Eclogue IV as a prophecy of Christ’s birth. His works include the Eclogues (pastoral poems), the Georgics (a poem on agriculture), and the Aeneid, the pinnacle of Latin epic poetry, narrating Aeneas’s journey from Troy’s fall to his settlement in Italy.
settlement in Italy.