Roman Empire: Society, Economy, and Culture
Organization of the Roman Empire
The Emperor directly appointed all key positions and ran the empire. To apply and transmit their orders, they created the Pax Romana imperial council. In the first and second centuries AD, during the Pax Romana, Trajan and two other emperors of Spanish origin ruled. Rome reached a population of one million people. In 212 AD, Caracalla granted citizenship to all but Roman slaves.
Social Classes
- Senators and administrators
- Nobilitas: The enriched elite of the empire
- Plebeians: Patricians and plebeians, citizens, not clients
- Libertos: Freedmen
- Slaves: Worked on estates and vast tracts of land farmed by patrician merchants. Military slaves worked on farms. A farm was typically organized around a central field (villa) with adjacent blocks, barns, etc.
Foreign Trade
Trade among the provinces was enriched by internal peace, security in communications, and increased agricultural production. The Romans had magnificent roads connecting all provinces of the empire. International trade was carried out by sea. The existence of a single, solid currency usable in all lands of the empire helped the development of trade. Bronze was commonly used, and the rule was extended to gold (aureus) and silver (denarius).
Division of the Empire
Emperor Theodosius divided the empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. The Western Roman Empire (Rome) and the Eastern Roman Empire (Constantinople) were separated. The East learned to fight the barbarians and survived, but the West could not be saved.
Constantine and Christianity
Constantine, a general who became emperor in 312 AD, authorized Christianity in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan. This ended the persecutions, and he himself converted to Christianity.
The End of the Western Roman Empire
In 476 AD, the barbarian leader Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, a ten-year-old child who was the last Roman emperor.
Roman Gods
- Hera/Juno: Family god
- Zeus/Jupiter: God of the eagle
- Apollo: God of the sun and beauty
- Neptune/Poseidon: God of the sea, represented with a trident
- Hades/Pluto: God of the underworld, represented with Cerberus, the three-headed dog
- Mars/Ares: God of war
- Diana/Artemis: Goddess of the hunt, represented with a bow and arrow
- Minerva/Athena: Goddess of wisdom
- Mercury/Hermes: Messenger of the gods, represented with a caduceus wand
- Bacchus/Dionysius: God of wine, represented with a wine cup
- Venus/Aphrodite: Goddess of love and beauty
Cult in Rome
Romans worshiped the gods of the house and home (Lares and Penates) in the domestic altar (Lararium). They also honored the spirits of ancestors (Manes). The most frequent method of consulting the gods was the interpretation of the flight of birds (auspices) by augurs. Gods also made their will known spontaneously by sending signals: omens and portents.
Roman Law
Roman law was a great contribution. It distinguished between public law, which regulated relations between the state and citizens, and private law, which ordered relations between people.
Architecture
The Romans were eclectic, taking cultural elements from the cities they conquered and mixing them with their own. Their architecture mixed arches, domes, and columns. They used a brick-like mass of buildings with cement and luxurious marble and metallic coatings.
Roman Urbanism
Cities had painted adobe walls, and the streets were aligned, forming squares where the blocks (insulae) were located. Insulae had a central patio. There were two main streets: the Cardo (North-South axis) and the Decumanus (East-West axis), which crossed at a large square called the Forum. The Forum housed the most important public buildings.
Public Works
- Religious buildings: Temples
- Buildings for administration and government: Forum, Basilica (palace of justice)
- Entertainment: Theater, amphitheater, circus, baths
- Communication routes: Roads and bridges
- Aqueducts: To supply water to cities
- Memorials: Columns, mausoleums, and triumphal arches
Archaic Greek Sculpture
Characterized by young, naked figures (Kouroi) and clothed girls (Korai). They expressed a slight smile (archaic smile). The Kore of the Peplos is an example.
Classical Period Sculpture
Characterized by movement and serene expression. The canon was seven heads tall. Examples include Myron’s Discobolus and Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos.
Hellenistic Sculpture
Focused on human emotions and dramatic representation. The canon was eight heads tall. An example is the Dying Gaul.
Roman Sculpture
Influenced by Greek sculpture, Romans copied Greek models. New forms included equestrian portraits (man on a horse), commemorative busts with much realism, and reliefs.
Roman Painting
Houses were decorated with wall paintings made using the fresco technique: a layer of plaster was applied before it dried, and then it was painted.
Roman Mosaic
Figurative and geometric decoration made of small stone fragments.