Road to World War II: Aggression, Pacts, & Weimar Republic
The Road to World War II: Fascist Aggressions
Key Aggressions Leading to Global Conflict
1931: Japan Invades Manchuria
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria (China), establishing the satellite state of Manchukuo the following year. As the most powerful nation in the Far East, this marked a significant act of aggression.
1933: Germany Leaves the League of Nations
A pivotal move by the new German government in 1933 led to Germany’s withdrawal from the League of Nations. This action, following the collapse of the Weimar Republic, allowed Hitler to rearm and initiate conflicts.
1935: Italian Expansionism in Abyssinia
In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) to expand its colonial empire in East Africa, demonstrating its imperial ambitions.
1935: Germany Rearms & Anglo-German Naval Treaty
Also in 1935, Germany began rearming. The Anglo-German Naval Treaty permitted Germany to build a navy one-third the size of Britain’s, directly violating the Treaty of Versailles.
1936: Second Sino-Japanese War Begins
The war between China and Japan commenced in 1936. China received aid from Russia, Great Britain, France, and the United States. During this conflict, particularly the Nanjing Massacre, Japanese forces brutally murdered soldiers and civilians, with a specific focus on attacking women.
1936: Remilitarization of the Rhineland
Adolf Hitler sent German military forces into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland in 1936. This act directly broke both the Locarno Pact and the Treaty of Versailles.
1937: Bombing of Guernica
The infamous Bombing of Guernica occurred in 1937, a devastating aerial attack during the Spanish Civil War.
1938: Austria & Sudetenland Annexation
In 1938, Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by uniting with Austria (the Anschluss) and annexing the German-speaking areas of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.
International Pacts & Alliances
The Axis Powers: Formation & Goals
The formation of diplomatic alliances between Germany, Italy, and Japan, known as the Axis Powers, was driven by their common interests in territorial expansion and the destruction of communism.
Rome-Berlin Axis (November 1936)
An alliance formed between Italy and Germany on November 1, 1936, in which they agreed to support Franco in the Spanish Civil War.
Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1936)
On November 25, 1936, Germany and Japan united against the perceived threat of Communism, primarily targeting the Soviet Union. Italy signed this pact a year later.
Pact of Steel (May 1939)
This military alliance between Germany and Italy, signed on May 22, 1939, officially formed the core of the Axis Powers. Japan joined in 1940, and the alliance subsequently became known as the Tripartite Pact.
The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939)
Hitler believed that British Prime Minister Chamberlain was too weak to protect Poland, and that France would not act without Britain’s support. With Italy’s backing, and once the Nazi-Soviet Pact was secured, he felt ready to invade.
On August 23, 1939, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin signed the pact, guaranteeing Russia’s neutrality just as conflict was about to erupt on its western front. The pact also included a secret protocol, which divided Poland between Hitler and Stalin and allowed for the occupation of the Baltic States by Russia.
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, on September 3, France and the United Kingdom declared war on the Third Reich, marking the official start of World War II in Europe.
The Weimar Republic (1918–1933)
Early Years & Challenges (1918–1923)
The Weimar Republic faced significant challenges, including opposition from both left- and right-wing political extremists.
Left-Wing Opposition: Spartacus League Uprising
The Communist Party of Germany emerged from the Marxist Spartacus League, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. They advocated for a government based on the Russian revolutionary model. In January 1919, they staged an uprising in Berlin, which the government suppressed with the help of the Freikorps. Both leaders were assassinated.
Right-Wing Opposition: Kapp Putsch & “Stab-in-the-Back”
Right-wing nationalists opposed any democratic system. They subscribed to the “stab-in-the-back” myth, which falsely blamed Weimar politicians for Germany’s surrender and accused them of betraying the army. The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to reduce its land forces. By 1920, the government began to view the Freikorps as a threat. A coup, known as the Kapp Putsch, lasted four days.
Crisis of 1923: Hyperinflation & Coup Attempts
Economic Crisis & Hyperinflation in the Ruhr
When Germany failed to make its war reparations payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the industrial Ruhr Basin. Ruhr workers went on strike, exacerbating the existing economic crisis. The government attempted to pay reparations and stabilise the economy by printing more money, but this sudden flood of currency resulted in severe hyperinflation. Prices increased uncontrollably, and Germany’s currency, the mark, became worthless.
The Beer Hall Putsch
On November 8, 1923, Austrian agitator Adolf Hitler staged a failed coup d’état in Munich, known as the Beer Hall Putsch. His Nazi Party was banned, and he was imprisoned. However, he returned in 1925 to challenge the republic once more.
The Golden Era (1924–1929)
The Dawes Plan (1924)
American politician Charles Dawes proposed a plan to help Germany recover from the crisis. It involved:
- Reorganising the Reichsbank (Germany’s central bank) by calling in and burning the old currency, which ended hyperinflation.
- Allowing more time for Germany to repay its debt.
- Extending new loans from American banks to help pay reparations.
- Using reparations money to pay off war debt to the United States.
The Locarno Treaties (1925)
On the political front, the Allied powers and Germany signed a series of agreements in 1925, known as the Locarno Treaties, to guarantee peace in Europe. These treaties established Germany’s western borders. France and Belgium withdrew from the Ruhr, and Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926.
Decline & Hitler’s Rise to Power (1929–1933)
Hitler’s Rise to Power
Following the 1932 elections, the Nazi Party formed a coalition government with conservatives. In January 1933, Hitler became chancellor and immediately took steps to establish himself as an absolute ruler. This marked the definitive end of the Weimar Republic.