Rise of National Monarchies: England, France, Spain
The Growth of National Monarchies (42-53) – Feudalism’s Decline
In the Middle Ages, strong national governments were absent. A nation is a group of people in a shared territory, under one government, usually speaking the same language. It has a central government for defense and order. People are distinguished by language, religion, traditions, and lifestyle. National loyalty and pride are called nationalism.
Expanding Trade Demands Stronger Governance
By the 1100s, cities grew rapidly, trade expanded, and Europe’s population increased. The middle class disliked the lack of law and order, which harmed business and property. They resented feudal land taxes, military service, multiple legal systems, the monarchy, and the Church. Nobles charged tolls for road and river use. Reliable police forces were nonexistent.
Powerful Kings Consolidate Authority
Nations establishing central power followed a pattern: kings gained power with Church support, collected taxes from merchants, becoming independent of nobles. With increased income, kings hired mercenaries and strengthened their governments. They employed civil servants for finance, military, and legal matters. Royal courts applied uniform laws to all classes, gradually building stronger nations.
England’s Path to Nationhood
England began centralizing its government in the 11th century. In 1066, William claimed the throne, defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings, and became king. William the Conqueror established a strong monarchy, introduced centralized feudalism, required vassals, redistributed land, and ordered a census of taxable wealth, laying the foundation for a strong monarchy.
Henry II and Legal Reforms
Henry II, founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, made significant legal reforms: Common law applied royal law to everyone, based on customs and court decisions. Circuit courts sent judges across the country, combining local customs with legal opinions. The jury system initially involved accusers, evolving into the grand jury.
The Magna Carta
In 1215, nobles forced King John to agree to the Magna Carta, limiting his power and protecting feudal rights. It established that the law is above the king, the king must obey the law, and there is equal justice under the law. Taxes required people’s consent through representatives.
Parliament’s Rise Under Edward I
Edward I aimed to unite Great Britain. In 1295, he ordered elections for knights to serve in Parliament. The House of Lords comprised lords, while the House of Commons included elected knights and townsmen, becoming a legislative body.
The War of the Roses
In 1454, the Lancaster and York families fought for the throne. Henry Tudor defeated Richard III, married Elizabeth of York, and united the families. Parliament’s power weakened during the Tudor reign, but common law was enforced, and England gained influence in Europe.
French Kings Forge a National State
After Charlemagne’s reign, the centralized government collapsed. In 987, Hugh Capet was elected king, starting the Capetian dynasty.
Capetian Kings
Louis VI controlled royal lands and suppressed rebellious barons. Capetian kings expanded their territory and improved governance. Louis IX established royal courts and prioritized peace and justice. He was later canonized as Saint Louis.
The Hundred Years’ War
In 1328, Edward III of England claimed the French throne, leading to the Hundred Years’ War. Joan of Arc inspired French troops, but was captured and executed. The war fostered patriotism and new warfare methods.
Spain and Portugal Emerge
The Moors conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula in 711. Alphonso I declared Portugal independent. Ferdinand and Isabella united Spain, completed the Reconquista, and enforced religious conformity through the Inquisition.
Other European Nations
Margaret I united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden briefly. Hungary formed along the Danube. Polish tribes united under a king. Czechs unified in Bohemia and Moravia.
Germany and Italy’s Disunity
German kings aimed for centralized rule but focused on Italy. Otto the Great was crowned emperor, leading to the Holy Roman Empire. Germany remained fragmented. Italy’s city-states prevented unification until the 1800s.