Rise of Imperialism and Global Conflict: Late 19th & Early 20th Centuries
Sarajevo Crisis and the Outbreak of War
The assassination of the Austrian heir in Sarajevo triggered a European crisis. Austria, suspecting Serbian involvement and encouraged by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Russia backed Serbia, rejecting the ultimatum and mobilizing troops. Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, igniting World War I as European powers recognized the imminent danger.
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles held Germany responsible for the war and imposed harsh consequences:
- Disarmament and reduction of the German military.
- Territorial losses: Alsace and Lorraine returned to France, which also gained control of the Saar coal mines. German territories became part of Poland, with a corridor to the sea dividing Germany. Danzig was declared a free city. Belgium annexed some German cities. Germany’s colonies were divided between Britain and Japan.
- Reparations: Germany was obligated to pay reparations for 30 years and forced to sign the imposed peace treaty.
The Rise of Monopoly Capitalism
Around 1890, large banks began to consolidate their power over industries. Through agreements, companies maintained high prices and eliminated competitors. Standard Oil, for example, controlled almost the entire petroleum market. This monopolistic trend extended to steelworks, coal mines, railroads, shipbuilding, and weapons manufacturing. Bank capital played a crucial role in these developments.
Taylorism and the Labor Movement
Around 1880, Taylorism emerged in the United States, focusing on maximizing worker productivity and eliminating wasted time. This system, however, led to worker exhaustion and alienation. The Paris Commune of 1871 marked a turning point in the labor movement, briefly establishing a worker’s government. The Commune disbanded the army and police, separated church and state, and sought socialist reforms. However, it was brutally suppressed after two months, with thousands jailed or executed. The French government declared the First International illegal.
Revisionism and the Second International
Eduard Bernstein’s revisionist socialism argued for achieving socialist goals through peaceful reforms within capitalism. The Second International, founded in 1889, reflected the division between reformists and revolutionaries. In Spain, anarchism grew rapidly.
The Berlin Conference and Imperialism
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 formalized the scramble for Africa among European powers. Between 1876 and 1915, a quarter of the planet became colonized, primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The United States also expanded its influence. Economic imperialism was driven by the need for raw materials, markets, and investment opportunities.
Causes of Economic Imperialism
- Industrialized nations required raw materials like tin, rubber, cotton, and oil from distant lands.
- Colonies provided markets for manufactured goods and sources of food products.
- Imperialism aimed to create self-contained economic units for each power.
- Governments supported the construction of railroads and factories in colonies, exploiting cheap labor.
Key Events and Figures
- Dissolution of the First International (1876)
- Triple Alliance (1882)
- Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
- Trench Warfare (1915-1916)
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
- Eduard Bernstein
- Vladimir Lenin
- Second International
- League of Nations
- Woodrow Wilson