Rise of European Nationalism and Power Sharing Models

Posted on Dec 22, 2025 in Social sciences

Congress of Vienna (1815)

• Leader: Chaired by Austrian Chancellor Metternich.
• Restore Monarchies: Reinstated rulers who were removed by Napoleon.
• Redraw Boundaries: Restructured European borders to maintain a balance of power among states.
• Conservative Goal: Suppress the growth of liberal and nationalist movements in Europe.

Liberalism in 19th-Century Europe

• Meaning: Liberalism stood for freedom of the individual and equality before the law, opposing privileges based on birth.
• Political Aspect: Favored constitutional government, representative assemblies, and safeguards for civil rights like freedom of speech and press.
• Economic Aspect: Supported free trade and the removal of state restrictions on markets.
• Middle-Class Demands: The educated middle class (professionals, businessmen) demanded political rights, a constitution, and protection of private property.

Nationalism and the French Revolution

• End of Monarchy: The French Revolution (1789) abolished absolute monarchy and established a sovereign nation where power rested with the people.
• New Symbols and Ideas: Introduced national symbols like the tricolor flag, national anthem, and ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Laws and Rights: Created a constitution, guaranteed equality before the law, and ended feudal privileges.
• Spread to Europe: Revolutionary armies carried these ideas to neighboring countries, inspiring nationalist movements across Europe.

Napoleon’s Reforms: The Civil Code of 1804

• Civil Code Introduction: The Napoleonic Code (1804) established a uniform set of laws across his empire.
• Equality Before Law: Ensured all male citizens were equal under the law and ended privileges based on birth.
• Abolition of Feudalism: Removed feudal dues and obligations, freeing peasants from serfdom.
• Administrative Changes: Standardized weights, measures, and currency, promoting trade and unity.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Italian Unification

• Founder of Young Italy: In 1831, Mazzini started the secret society Young Italy to unite the Italian states into a single republic.
• Belief in Republicanism: Opposed monarchy and foreign domination, promoting democracy and national unity.
• Inspiring Youth: Encouraged young Italians to fight for independence through education and revolutionary activities.
• Contribution to Unification: Though his revolts often failed, his ideas inspired later leaders like Cavour and Garibaldi in achieving Italy’s unification.

The Unification of Italy

• Cavour’s Diplomacy: Count Camillo di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, strengthened the economy and built alliances, especially with France, to challenge Austrian control in the north.
• War with Austria (1859): With French support, Austria was defeated and Lombardy was added to Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Garibaldi’s Campaign: Giuseppe Garibaldi led the volunteer army of Red Shirts to liberate Sicily and Naples from Bourbon rule, later handing these territories to King Victor Emmanuel II.
• Role of Victor Emmanuel II: He became the first king of a unified Italy in 1861, symbolizing national unity.
• Completion in 1870: After the withdrawal of French troops from Rome, it was annexed and declared the capital, completing Italian unification.

The Unification of Germany

• Bismarck’s Leadership: Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia, used the policy of blood and iron to unite the German states under Prussian leadership.
• War with Denmark (1864): Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and gained control of Schleswig and Holstein.
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Prussia defeated Austria, gaining control over northern German states and forming the North German Confederation.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Victory over France stirred nationalist feelings in southern German states, which then joined the union.
• German Empire Proclaimed (1871): At Versailles, King William I of Prussia was crowned German Emperor; Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany.

The 1848 Revolution and Liberal Demands

• Social and Economic Causes: The middle class sought political rights, while workers and peasants demanded better living and working conditions.
• Women’s Participation: Women organized political associations, took part in rallies, and raised demands for voting rights, though these were mostly ignored by male leaders.
• Outcome: Many revolutions failed, but they spread the ideas of liberalism, nationalism, and democracy across Europe.

Formation of the British Nation-State

• Union with Scotland (1707): The Act of Union merged England and Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain with a single parliament.
• Incorporation of Ireland (1801): Ireland was brought under British control after the suppression of revolts, though resistance continued.
• Dominance of English Culture: The English language, laws, and institutions were imposed, suppressing other regional identities.
• Symbol of Power: The British flag (Union Jack), national anthem, and centralized administration helped create a common national identity.

Romanticism and National Identity

• Definition: Romanticism was a cultural and artistic movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that emphasized emotion, imagination, and individualism over reason and order.
• Focus on Nature: Romantic artists and poets glorified nature, rural life, and folk traditions as pure and uncorrupted.
• Nationalism Link: It inspired nationalist feelings by highlighting a nation’s unique culture, language, and history.

Achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Military Success: Expanded French territory through numerous victories across Europe, making France a dominant power.
• Napoleonic Code (1804): Introduced a uniform legal system ensuring equality before the law, protecting property rights, and ending feudal privileges.
• Administrative Reforms: Improved tax collection, established the Bank of France, and standardized weights, measures, and currency.
• Educational Reforms: Set up lycées (state-run schools) to train officials and military officers.
• Spread of Revolutionary Ideals: Carried principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity to countries under French control.

Conservatives vs. Liberals: Key Differences

• View on Change: Conservatives wanted to preserve traditional institutions like the monarchy and church; Liberals supported political change, constitutional government, and individual rights.
• Political System: Conservatives favored absolute monarchy; Liberals demanded elected assemblies and representation.
• Economy: Conservatives supported state control and privileges; Liberals promoted free markets and the removal of trade restrictions.
• Social Structure: Conservatives upheld class hierarchy; Liberals believed in equality before the law (often limited to property-owning men).

Visualizing the Nation through Allegory

• Role of Artists: Artists personified the nation as a human figure to create unity and patriotism among people.
• Example: France: The nation was depicted as Marianne, a woman symbolizing liberty and reason, shown with a red cap, tricolor, and laurel crown.
• Example: Germany: The nation was personified as Germania, shown with a crown of oak leaves (symbol of heroism) and the sword of justice.
• Purpose: These symbols made the abstract idea of a nation easier to understand and emotionally connect with.

Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision of Democracy

• Year and Theme: In 1848, French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of four prints titled “Democratic and Social Republics” visualizing a world made up of democratic nations.
• Procession of Nations: Shows people of different nations marching in a long procession, each group carrying their national flags and wearing traditional costumes.
• Statue of Liberty: In the foreground, the Statue of Liberty holds the torch of freedom and the Charter of Rights, symbolizing liberty and justice.
• Broken Chains: Chains lie on the ground, representing the end of absolutist rule and oppression.
• Background: The scene includes the sky opening up to heaven, with angels and a Christ-like figure blessing the union of nations, symbolizing fraternity among peoples of the world.

The Great Economic Hardship of the 1840s

• Agricultural Crisis: Bad harvests in the 1840s led to widespread famine, especially in Europe; food prices rose sharply.
• Industrial Slowdown: In towns, unemployment increased due to reduced production in industries.
• Fall in Income: Small producers and artisans suffered as cheap machine-made goods from larger industries flooded the market.
• Population Pressure: Rapid population growth increased competition for jobs and resources, worsening poverty.
• Social Unrest: These hardships triggered protests, revolts, and demands for political reforms across Europe.

Political Fragmentation in Europe

• Division into States: Many regions like Italy and Germany were divided into numerous small states, each with its own ruler.
• Different Rulers and Laws: These states had separate laws, currencies, and taxes, creating barriers to unity and trade.
• Foreign Control: Large parts of these regions were under the domination of powerful empires like Austria and the Ottoman Empire.
• Obstacle to Nationalism: This political division made it difficult to form unified national identities and coordinate reform movements.

Female Figures as National Allegories

• Symbolic Representation: In the 19th century, artists personified nations as female figures to make the concept of the nation more relatable and inspiring.
• France – Marianne: Depicted as a woman wearing a red cap of liberty, a tricolor, and a laurel crown, symbolizing liberty and republican ideals.
• Germany – Germania: Shown with a crown of oak leaves (heroism), an iron sword, and the black-red-gold tricolor, representing strength and unity.
• Purpose: These allegories created emotional attachment to the nation and inspired people to fight for freedom and unity.

Nationalist Tensions in the Balkan Region

• Geographical and Ethnic Diversity: The Balkans was home to many ethnic groups like Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Croats, each with strong nationalist aspirations.
• Decline of the Ottoman Empire: As Ottoman control weakened, different nationalities sought independence or expansion of their territories.
• Expansionist Ambitions: Newly independent states (like Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria) wanted to enlarge their borders, leading to conflicts.
• Interference of Big Powers: Austria-Hungary and Russia tried to extend influence in the region, supporting rival nationalist groups.
• Series of Wars: Frequent Balkan wars and uprisings created a tense political climate, turning the region into the powder keg of Europe before WWI.

Defining Power Sharing

• Meaning: The division of governmental powers and responsibilities among different organs (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary) and levels (Central, State, Local) to ensure balanced governance.
• Purpose: Prevents concentration of power in one authority and promotes accountability.
• Example: In India, powers are shared between Union and State governments as per the Constitution, and among organs to maintain checks and balances.

Forms of Power Sharing in Democracy

1. Among Different Organs of Government: Power shared between Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. This ensures checks and balances.
2. Among Different Levels of Government: Power shared between Union, State, and Local governments. This ensures regional autonomy.
3. Among Different Social Groups: Power shared among religious, linguistic, cultural, or ethnic groups. This protects minority rights.
4. Among Political Parties and Interest Groups: Power shared among different political parties to encourage participation and prevent domination.

The Belgium Model of Power Sharing

• Equal Representation: Both Dutch-speaking (Flemish) and French-speaking (Walloon) communities get equal political representation to prevent domination.
• Separate Government for Brussels: The capital city has its own government to manage local administration separately.
• Community Government: Handles cultural and educational issues like language and schools for each linguistic community.

Case Study: Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

• Conflict: The Sinhala majority and Tamil minority experienced severe tensions.
• Reason: Tamils felt discriminated against in jobs, education, and language policies.
• Result: The lack of power sharing led to a long civil war.
• Lesson: Shows that ignoring minority rights can create serious conflict.

Case Study: Accommodation in Belgium

• Conflict: Dutch-speaking and French-speaking communities wanted fair representation.
• Solution: Both communities received equal representation, Brussels was given its own government, and community governments were established.
• Result: Tensions were reduced, and the country maintained peaceful coexistence.
• Lesson: Proper power sharing can prevent conflict and promote harmony.

Why Power Sharing is Desirable

• Reduces Conflict: Prevents tensions and fights among communities.
• Protects Minority Rights: Ensures minorities have a voice in governance.
• Promotes Democracy: Allows participation of all sections of society.
• Prevents Misuse of Power: Ensures checks and balances.
• Maintains Political Stability: Fair systems are more stable and less likely to face civil unrest.

Majoritarianism vs. Power Sharing

Meaning of Majoritarianism

Majoritarianism means a system where the majority community or group dominates decision-making. The interests of minorities are often ignored, which can lead to discrimination and conflict if minority rights are not protected.

Comparison: Belgium vs. Sri Lanka

Horizontal vs. Vertical Power Sharing

1. Horizontal Power Sharing: Power is shared among different organs of government (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary) to ensure checks and balances.
2. Vertical Power Sharing: Power is shared among different levels of government (Union, State, Local) to ensure regional autonomy.

Ethnic Composition of Belgium

• Dutch-speaking (Flemish): About 59% of the population, mainly in the north.
• French-speaking (Walloon): About 40% of the population, mainly in the south.
• German-speaking: About 1% of the population.
• Brussels: Officially bilingual, but majority French-speaking.

Accommodation Efforts in Sri Lanka

• Ethnic Groups: Sinhalese (majority) and Tamils (minority).
• Issue: Tamils faced discrimination in jobs, education, and language policies.
• Accommodation Attempted: Some limited measures were introduced for regional autonomy, but they were not enough, leading to civil war.